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PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

OP 

CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES. 

ALSO, 

LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


BY  JAMES  P.  WILSON,  D.  D., 

I-ate  Pastor  of  the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia. 


"  Nil  nisi  justum  suadet,  et  lene." 


TO      WHICH      IS      PREFIXED, 

THE  SERMON, 

PREACHED   ON    THE    OCCASION   OF    THE   DEATH    OF    THE   AUTHOR, 
BY  REV.   THOMAS    H.  SKINNER,    D.  D. 


P  HILADELPHIA: 

FRENCH  <fc  PERKINS— 159  CHESTNUT  STREET 

BOSTON: 

PERKINS  &  MARVIN— 114  WASHINGTON  ST. 

1833. 


r.Y 


••  >  >»i  a*. 


Entered  according  to  the  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  thirty-two,  by  Matthew  Wilson,  in  the  Clerk's  Office 
of  the  District  Court  of  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


WM.  F.  GEDDES,  PRINTER,  9  LIBRARY  ST. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 

This  work  is  a  defence  against  unfounded  pretensions;  and  in- 
tended to  exhibit,  without  wounding1  any  individual,  the  illiteracy 
of  excluding  from  mercy  or  covenant  favors,  all  but  the  subjects  of 
the  hierarchy;  and  of  making  mute  presbyters  a  characteristic  of 
the  primitive  church.  The  inquiry  is  first  orderly  pursued  through 
the  early  testimonies,  that  innovations  might  be  detected;  and  the 
Scriptures  afterwards  examined  according  to  original  ideas. 

This  book  has  been  printed  in  numbers  in  the  Christian  Specta- 
tor, but  merely  with  the  design  to  elicit  objections,  that  it  might 
be  rectified,  if  found  unjust,  or  in  error  on  any  point.  Compensa- 
tion was  offered  by  the  publisher  at  New  Haven,  but  refused, 
because  the  right  was  reserved. 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION    I. 


Pag-e 


The  ordinary  officers  at  the  demise  of  the  apostles.  Barnabas 
spurious.  The  Pastor  of  Hermas  a  forgery.  The  testimony 
of  Clement  of  Rome,        ------  1 

SECTION    II. 
The  evidence  furnished  by  Polycarp.      The  fragment  of  Papias,    -  7 

SECTION    III. 

The  disinterested  representations  of  Justin  Martyr.      The  letter  of 

the  church  of  Smyrna.      The  fragment  of  Hegesippus,  -  16 

SECTION    IV. 

Tatian.  The  letter  of  the  churches  of  Vienne  and  Lyons.  The 
fragment  of  Melito.  The  writings  of  Athenagoras.  The  tract 
of  Hermias.  The  books  of  Theophilus  of  Antioch.  The  works 
of  Irenes,  .......  25 

SECTION    V. 

The  facts  appearing  in  Clement  of  Alexandria.  Novatian's  writ- 
ings in  Tertullian  and  Cyprian.    The  testimony  of  Tertullian,    -  36 

SECTION    VI. 
The  letters  ascribed  to  Ignatius  are  evidence  of  the  third  century. 

A  reply  to  Philo-Ignatius,  -  45 

SECTION   VII. 
The   dialogue  of   Minucius  Felix.      The  writings  of  Hippolytus. 

The  testimony  of  Origen,  .....  Q\ 

SECTION    VIII. 
The  character  and  evidence  of  Cyprian,       ....  69 

1* 


VI  CONTENTS. 

SECTION    IX. 

The  epistle  of  Firmilian.  The  writings  of  Gregory  Thaumaturgus. 
The  fragments  of  Methodius.  The  seven  books  of  Arnobius. 
The  writings  of  Laetantius,  .....  82 

SECTION     X. 
The  character  and  writings  of  Eusebius,        ....  89 

SECTION    XI. 

The  origin  and  history  of  councils  prior  to  A.D.  787,  99 

SECTION     XII. 
The  writings  of  Hilary  of  Poictiers.       The  learned  productions  of 

Hilary  the  deacon,  ......  108 

SECTION    XIII. 

The  important  writings  of  Athanasius.      The  six  books  of  Optatus. 

The  testimony  and  sufferings  of  Aerius,  -  -  -  118 

SECTION     XIV. 

The  writings  of  Basil  the  Great.      The  life  and  writings  of  Gregory 


of  Nazianzum.    The  works  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  the  brother  of 
Basil,         -  - 


127 


SECTION    XV. 

The  ordination  and  writings  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem.      The  writings 

of  Ambrose,         ------  137 

SECTION    XVI. 
The  works   of  Epiphanius  the  imbecile  Metropolitan  of  Cyprus. 

His  testimony  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  -  -  144 

SECTION    XVII. 

The  supposititious  writings  of  Dionysius  the  Areopagite.  The  vol- 
uminous writings  of  John,  since  called  Chrysostom.  The  frag- 
ments of  letters  of  Isidore  of  Pelusium,  ...  153 

SECTION    XVIII. 
The  works  of  the  learned  Jerom,      -  162 

SECTION    XIX. 

The  ten  tomes  and  supplement  of  Augustine  of  Numidia.      The 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

remaining  writings  of  Synesius  of  Ptolemais.     The  history,  epis- 
tles, dialogues,  &c.  of  Sulpicius  Severus.  ...  177 

SECTION    XX. 

The  writings  of  John  Cassian  of  Marseilles.  The  history  of  So- 
crates of  Constantinople.  The  nine  books  of  Sozomen  of  Pal- 
estine.   The  writings  of  Theodoret  of  Antioch,  -  ■  188 

SECTION    XXL 

The  writings  and  ambitious  efforts  of  Pope  Leo  the  first,  -  193 

SECTION    XXII. 

SEPARATISTS    OF    THE    EIGHTH    AND    TWELFTH    CENTURIES. 

The  Piedmontese  apart  of  the  Latin  church,  A.  D.  817.  They 
were  episcopal  at  the  death  of  Claude.  The  history  of  the  ori- 
gin and  progress  of  the  Bohemians.  The  Waldenses  of  France 
sprang  from  the  followers  of  Claude,        -  20S 

SECTION    XXIII. 

THE    HISTORY    OF    ORDINATIONS. 

The  extraordinary  offices  of  Apostle  and  evangelist  were  not  by 
ordination.  There  were  no  ordinations  but  of  presbyters  and 
deacons.  The  first  diocesan  bishops  were  not  constituted  by  im- 
position of  hands.  Canonical  ordinations  arose  after  the  second 
century,      --<■•»--•-  221 

SECTION    XXIV. 

LAY    ELDERS    EXCLUDED    BY    EPISCOPACY- 

The  Syrian  churches,  Waldenses  and  Culdees  were  all  episcopal. 
Lay  elders  were  introduced  at  Geneva,  by  a  compromise.  Af- 
terwards adopted  by  other  cantons;  also  in  France,  Nether- 
lands, Scotland,  England,  and  America,  ...  253 

SECTION    XXV. 

The  primitive  state  of  the  church  having  been  sought  from  credible 
witnesses  of  the  facts,  without  regard  to  their  opinions,  or  hear- 
says; and  the  changes  marked  from  the  commencement  of  the 
second  to  the  termination  of  the  fifth  century,  and  having  seen 
the  successive  introduction  of  parochial  and  diocesan  episco- 
pacy, the  canonical  ordination  and  human  authority  of  the  latter, 
and  the  creation  of  quasi  presbyters  by  Calvin,  we  are  prepared 
better  to  understand  the  New  Testament  by  the  rejection  of  these 
novelties.     But  bishops  are  by  some  supposed  to  be  the  succes- 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

sors  of  the  evangelists,  and  Timothy  is  made  bisTiop  of  Ephesus. 
— How  Timothy  received  authority  and  for  what  purpose.  An 
evangelist  before  he  came  to  Ephesus.  He  was  left  by  Paul  at 
Ephesus,  the  last  time  Paul  was  there,  Timothy  having  returned 
thither  after  Paul's  first  letter  to  the  Corinthians.  Timothy  left 
Ephesus  after  ordaining  presbyters  there,  and  came  to  Paul  in 
Macedonia,  before  his  return  to  Jerusalem  and  first  imprison- 
ment. The  first  letter  to  Timothy  was  before  he  left  Ephesus  to 
go  to  Paul  in  Macedonia,  and  instructed  him  in  choosing  and  or- 
daining the  presbyters.  He  accompanied  Paul  to  Jerusalem  and 
Rome,  where  he  was  during  the  Apostle's  first  imprisonment. 
The  second  letter  to  Timothy  was  written  during  the  second  im- 
prisonment, and  discovers  that  Timothy  was  not  then  at  Ephe- 
sus; it  calls  him  to  Rome;  and  it  no  where  appears  that  Timothy 
ever  returned  to  Ephesus  after  ordaining  the  elders  there,  -  251 

SECTION    XXVI. 

TITUS    WAS     ALSO     AN     EXTRAORDINARY     OFFICER,    AND     NOT   A 
BISHOP    OF    CRETE. 

He  was  Paul's  attendant  or  evangelist,  before  the  Gospel  was 
carried  to  Crete. — A  polios  is  named  in  the  epistle  to  Titus,  but 
as  they  first  saw  Apollos  on  Paul's  last  visit  to  Ephesus,  it  was 
written  after  that  visit.  Every  movement  of  Paul,  from  the  riot 
at  Ephesus  unto  his  first  imprisonment,  is  given,  and  events  show 
he  did  not  leave  him  in  Crete  before  he  went  to  Rome. — His  let- 
ters from  Rome  discover  that  Titus  was  not  with  him  during  his 
first  imprisonment,  and  of  course  he  could  not  have  left  him  in 
Crete  on  his  return  from  Rome. — Titus  had  been  with  Paul  at  Je- 
rusalem, but  after  separating  from  Barnabas,  he  was  no  more 
with  Paul  till  his  second  visit  to  Ephesus;  probably  he  was  sent 
with  the  letter  to  the  Galatians,and  met  Paul  at  Ephesus  on  his  last 
visit  there,  from  whence  Paul  sent  him  to  Corinth,  and  he  came 
to  Paul  in  Macedonia,  and  was  sent  back  to  Corinth. — At  some 
period  after  his  first  imprisonment,  they  may  have  gone  to  Crete; 
and  Titus  being  left  there,  received  this  letter  as  a  discharge  from 
thence,  when  a  substitute  arrived.  He  was  at  Nicopolis  one  win- 
ter with  Paul;  and  the  Scriptures  leave  him  in  Dalmatia,  -  263 

SECTION    XXVII. 

THE     FIXED     STATE,   AND    ORDINARY     OFFICERS   OF     THE    PRIMI- 
TIVE  CHURCHES. 

Under  the  spiritual  dispensation  of  the  gospel,  the  extraordinary 
I    officers  were  the  apostles,  to  confer  gifts  and  teach  by  means  of 


CONTENTS.  IX 

the  inspiration  of  suggestion;  the  evangelists,  to  plant  and  water 
churches;  prophets,  with  occasional  inspiration  to  explain  the 
Scriptures. — The  gifts  are  described,  1  Cor.  xii.  28;  Rom.  xii. 
6 — 8;  Ephes.  iv.  11,  12. — Officers  qualified  to  administei  ordi- 
nances, succeeded  the  extraordinary  gifts,  and  churches,  which 
were  Christian  societies,  were  substituted  for  the  synagogues.  But 
two  orders  or  kinds  were  adopted — presbyters,  who  were  called 
also  pastors,  to  teach,  ordain,  administer  baptism  and  the  euchar- 
ist,  and  to  govern,  and  deacons  to  serve. — Among  the  presbyters, 
a  bench  of  which  was  at  first  in  every  church,  and  but  one  pres- 
bytery in  a  society  or  city,- there  was  one  who  presided,  denomi- 
nated TTfioaluK,  angel,  and  by  other  names;  yet  the  ordination 
was  not  different  from  that  of  the  rest. — The  first  change  was  by 
a  gradual  transition  into  pastoral  or  parochial  episcopacy,  after- 
wards into  diocesan. — This  was  established  by  the  Council  of 
Nice,  and  at  length  produced  papacy,        -  -  -  270 

Liturgical  Considerations,       -  -  -  -  -  289 


SERMON.* 


Among  the  reasons,  my  brethren,  which  induced  the 
speaker  to  undertake,  at  your  request,  the  performance  of 
the  present  service,  he  is  unwilling  any  one  should  reckon, 
a  sense  of  his  competency  to  the  task.  If  one's  ability  to 
speak  justly  of  another,  is  at  all  proportional  to  their  de- 
grees of  mutual  conformity  in  talents  and  virtues,  there 
are  not  many  persons  among  the  acquaintance  of  your  late 
pastor,  of  whatever  experience  and  attainments,  who  ought 
to  think  themselves  adequate  to  a  complete  description  of 
him.  An  intimacy  of  nearly  sixteen  years,  has  made  him 
who  addresses  you  very  conscious,  that  his  inferiority  in 
age,  though  a  great  disqualification,  is  probably  the  least 
considerable  point  in  his  unfitness  to  that  undertaking. 
He  was  led,  however,  to  hope,  that  he  would  receive  so 
much  assistance  from  the  papers  of  his  lamented  friend, 
that  he  might  almost  make  him  his  own  biographer;  but, 
to  his  great  surprise,  that  peculiar  man  was  found  to  have 
left  not  a  sentence  about  himself,  among  all  his  manu- 
scripts; nor  have  many  particulars  in  his  history  been 
ascertained,  besides  such  as  are  of  extensive  notoriety. 

*  Preached  in  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Philadelphia, 
January  16th,  1831. 


Hence  it  became  necessary  to  make  a  discourse  of  a  very 
different  character  from  that  which  was  first  projected, 
and  which  perhaps  would  have  better  met  your  anticipa- 
tions. 


Micah  vi.  9. — The  Lord's  voice  crieth  unto  the  city;  and  the  man 
of  wisdom  shall  see  thy  name.  Hear  ye  the  rod,  and  who  hath  ap- 
pointed it. 

It  is  one  of  the  consequences  of  man's  fallen  state,  that 
he  is  apt  to  misapprehend  the  design  of  God's  gracious 
measures  for  his  recovery.  Shadows  of  good  things  he 
mistakes  for  the  reality;  ordinances  of  mercy  become 
means  of  spiritual  pride;  grace  is  turned  into  licentious- 
ness; and  Christ  himself  is  made  the  minister  of  sin. 

The  prophet  had  given,  in  the  Jews  of  his  day,  an  ex- 
emplification of  this  trait  of  human  perverseness.  He  had 
represented  that  idolatrous  generation  as  apparently  sen- 
sible to  the  dangerous  consequences  of  their  idolatry,  and 
desirous  to  discover  some  way  in  which  they  might  avert 
the  divine  displeasure.  ';  Wherewith  shall  I  come  before 
the  Lord;  and  bow  myself  before  the  high  God?  Shall  T 
come  before  him  with  burnt-offe rings;  with  calves  of  a 
vear  old?  Will  the  Lord  be  pleased  with  thousands  of 
rams,  or  with  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil?  Shall  I  give 
my  first-born  for  my  transgression;  the  fruit  of  my  body 
for  the  sin  of  my  soul?"  These  interrogatories  betray  a 
radical  misconception  of  the  purpose  for  which  sacrifices 
were  appointed.  They  make  God  vindictive;  and  ap- 
peasable, only  by  expensive  oblations.  So  had  the  hea- 
then, amidst  their  guilty  darkness  and  fear,  reproached 
the  divine  nature;  but  that  the  Depositaries  of  revealed 


SERM0X.  XlU 

truth  should  have  fallen  into  this  error,  was  scarcely  to 
have  been  expected.  An  illustrious  example  in  their  own 
history  should  have  made  them  wiser.  The  royal  peni- 
tent's memorable  declarations — "  Thou  desirest  not  sacri- 
fice, else  would  I  give  it;  thou  delightest  not  in  burnt- 
offering;  the  sacrifices  of  God  are  a  broken  spirit — a  bro- 
ken and  a  contrite  heart,  O  God,  thou  wilt  not  despise," 
should  have  left  them  at  no  loss,  as  to  the  way  of  regaining 
the  divine  favor.  But  this  people  were  strangers  to  the 
relentings  of  godly  sorrow;  they  had  formed  no  purpose 
of  a  genuine  change  of  life;  .but  merely  desiring  to  avert 
the  consequences  of  their  infidelity,  and  thinking  this 
might  be  done  by  offering  costly  sacrifices,  they  declare 
themselves  ready  to  go  to  any  practicable  length,  in  such 
a  way  of  escaping  the  displeasure  of  God.  The  prophet 
answers  rebukefully  to  their  infatuated  inquiries,  "  He 
hath  showed  thee,  O  man,  what  is  good;  and  what  doth 
the  Lord  require  of  thee,  but  to  do  justly,  and  to  love 
mercy,  and  to  walk  humbly  with  thy  God."  Sacrifice  not 
your  first-born,  but  your  sins.  Reform  your  dishonest, 
oppressive,  profane  practices.  Humble  yourselves  before 
God  with  a  penitent,  sin-renouncing,  obedient  spirit. 
"Hath  the  Lord  as  great  delight  in  burnt-offerings  and 
sacrifices  as  in  obeying  the  voice  of  the  Lord?  Behold  to 
obey  is  better  than  sacrifice,  and  to  hearken  than  the  fat 
of  rams." 

The  madness  which  the  prophet  thus  sharply  repre- 
hends, in  his  own  people,  has  not  been  limited  to  them. 
There  are  multitudes  even  now,  who,  to  escape  the  pun- 
ishment of  their  sin,  would  do  any  thing  which  might  be 
exacted,  in  the  way  of  expense  or  penance — would  fast 
and  wear  sackcloth,  and  give  all  their  goods  to  feed  the 
poor,  and  their  own  bodies  to  be  burned,  who  yet  most 


XIV  SERMON. 

stubbornly  withhold  from  God  the  acceptable  sacrifice  of 
a  subdued  and  obedient  heart. 

This,  however,  is  God's  great  demand  of  the  sons  of  men 
—the  main  end  and  argument  of  all  his  overtures,  ordinan- 
ces, instructions,  and  commandments;  and  any  ritual  ob- 
servances which  do  not  involve  compliance  with  this  de- 
mand, are  a  perversion  of  the  right  ways  of  the  Lord, to  which 
and  its  authors,  as  in  the  case  of  Cain,  the  beginner  of 
this  iniquity,  God  hath  not,  and,  without  being  opposed  to 
his  own  institutions,  cannot  have  respect.  Hence  the 
remonstrant  strain  of  our  propbet,  after  exposing  in  the 
manner  we  have  seen,  the  mistake  of  his  countrymen— a 
most  culpable  mistake,  which  might  well  incur  a  divine 
rebuke.  What  was  the  pretext  of  that  ignorance  which 
caused  the  perplexity  of  this  people?  Had  not  their  means 
of  information  been  adequate?  Had  God  winked  at  their 
iniquity?  Had  he  called  them  to  repentance  with  an  in- 
distinct or  feeble  voice?  His  voice,  said  the  prophet,  "  cri- 
eth" — not  speaketh  with  a  still  small  accent — but  crieth, 
putteth  on  strength,  calleth  aloud,  and  reacheth  afar- — not 
to  one  or  another,  but  the  chief  place  of  concourse,  "the 
city,"  where  the  multitudes  of  men  dwell — to  all,  from  the 
least  to  the  greatest,  doth  the  almighty  voice  extend:  As 
said  Solomon,  speaking  of  the  Lord's  voice  under  the  fit 
names  of  wisdom  and  understanding — "Doth  not  wis- 
dom cry?  and  understanding  put  forth  her  voice?  She 
standeth  in  the  top  of  high  places,  by  the  way,  in  the 
places  of  the  paths.  She  crieth  at  the  gates,  at  the  entry 
of  the  city;  at  the  coming  in  at  the  doors.  Unto  you,  O 
men,  I  call,  and  my  voice  is  unto  the  sons  of  men." 

And  now,  if  we  would  know  what  had  hindered  this 
people  from  comprehending  that  voice,  by  attending  to  the 


SERMON.  XV 

next  words  of  the  prophet,  we  shall  learn  that  they  had 
become  so  worldly-minded,  so  sensual,  that  in  respect  to 
the  things  of  the  Spirit  of  God  they  were  as  men  without 
understanding.  Into  this  deep  fatuity  does  the  prophet 
insinuate  they  had  sunk,  when  to  his  announcement  that 
the  Lord  lifteth  up  his  voice,  he  upbraidingly  subjoins, 
"the  man  of  wisdom  shall  see  thy  name."  This  it  is 
which  makes  graceless  men  contemptuous  of  God's  calls, 
that  they  heed  not  these  calls  as  coming  from  God;  full  of 
all  that  is  awful  in  his  nature  and  imperative  in  his  sove- 
reignty. If  they  so  regarded  them,  both  their  ears  would 
tingle  until  they  ceased  to  resist  them;  and  that  they 
should  not  so  regard  them,  is  almost  enough,  as  the  Scrip- 
ture in  several  places  intimates,  to  provoke  unconscious 
nature  itself  into  outcries  of  wonder  and  sorrow. 

And  shall  this  stupidity  pass  unrebuked?  Shall  not  that 
divine  majesty  which  is  not  acknowledged  in  God's  calls 
to  repentance,  assert  itself  at  length  in  inflictions  of  just 
displeasure?  Why  then  the  mention  in  our  passage,  of 
"the  rod,"  along  with  "the  voice  of  the  Lord;"  the  one 
to  punish  the  contempt  of  the  other.  If  ye  will  not  hear 
his  voice,  said  the  man  of  God,  "  hear  ye  the  rod,  and 
who  hath  appointed  it."  That  awful  rod  which  is  al- 
ready stretched  out,  before  your  eyes,  in  the  judgments 
which  are  abroad  in  your  land,  who  think  ye  hath  ap- 
pointed it,  and  for  what  purpose?  You  can  despise  calls  to 
repentance,  as  though  they  were  but  the  breath  of  a  mor- 
tal like  yourselves;  shall  the  judgments  which  are  upon 
you,  be  held  in  like  contempt? 

Now  what,  brethren,  was  the  manner  and  fashion  of  that 
crying  voice  of  God,  which  it  was  so  fearful  a  thing  not  to 
understand?  Was  it,  do  ye  suppose,  like  that  which 
poured  through  the  open  heavens  at  the  baptism  of  Christ? 


XVI  •  SERMON. 

Did  it  sound  forth  from  the  clouds  with  the  loudness  and 
terribleness  of  thunder?  It  was  the  simple  expression  of  his 
will  by  the  ministry  of  his  servants,  the  prophets.  So  it 
was  that  God  anciently  spake  to  the  fathers  of  the  Jewish 
people.  The  voice  of  the  prophets — that  was  His  voice  of 
which  it  is  said,  the  voice  of  the  Lord  is  powerful,  is  full 
of  majesty,  breaketh  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  maketh  Sinai 
to  skip  like  a  young  unicorn,  divideth  the  flames  of  fire, 
shaketh  the  wilderness,  maketh  the  forest  bare,  by  which 
the  heavens  and  all  their  hosts  were  made,  which  spake 
and  it  was  done,  which  commanded  and  it  stood  fast' — that 
same  almighty  voice  proceeded  forth  from  the  mouth  of 
holy  men  of  old,  when  they  spake  in  the  prophetical  cha- 
racter. 

I.  And  now,  in  shaping  the  tenor  of  our  discourse  to 
the  occasion  of  the  meeting,  our  first  remark  is,  that  the 
fact  just  asserted  in  respect  to  the  ancient  prophets,  is  true 
also,  in  respect  to  the  Christian  ministry,  the  prophets  of 
the  present  dispensation.  The  official  and  veritable  ut- 
terances of  the  evangelical  ministry  are  as  surely  "the 
voice  of  the  Lord"  as  were  the  testimonies  of  the  holy 
men  of  old,  who  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost.  The  outward  rank  and  condition  of  that  ministry 
■ — theirbirth,  breeding,  civil  standing,  and  connexions — for 
the  most  part  confessedly  low,  make  nothing  against  this 
high  speecli  concerning  them.  For  the  prophets  and  even 
the  apostles,  what  were  some  of  them  in  these  unessential 
respects?  Nay,  what,  in  such  respects  as  these,  was  the 
Incarnate  AVord,  the  voice  of  the  Lord  embodied  and 
speaking  with  its  own  and  not  another's  mouth? — It 
shows  the  depth  to  which  our  nature  is  degraded,  that  al- 
most nothing  seems  of  worth  in  the  world's  estimation, 
compared  to  outward  distinctions  and  possessions:  And, 
therefore,  God,  that  he  might  employ  the  strongest  mean 


possible  for  recovering  us  from  this  insanity,  hath  poured 
the  full  vials  of  his  infinite  contempt  on  these  idols  of 
mankind;  in  his  choice  and  separation  of  persons,  bot4i 
unto  the  honors  of  his  heavenly  kingdom,  and  unto  the 
management  and  labors  of  his  kingdom  on  earth:  Not 
deigning,  as  his  usual  way  has  been,  even  to  look  on 
princes,  and  judges,  and  mighty  commanders,  while  he 
puts  his  Holy  Spirit  in  poor,  unknown,  uncultivated  men; 
and  from  the  mouth  of  such  babes  and  sucklings,  sounds 
out  his  own  almighty  voice,  by  which  he  hath  shaken  the 
earth,  and  not  earth  only,  but  also  heaven;  and  will  yet 
shake  the  deepest  foundations  of  hell,  and  establish  order 
and  peace  throughout  his  vast  dominions,  never  to  be  dis- 
turbed again  in  all  the  ages  of  eternity. 

If  any  one  still  think,  that  the  claim  which  we  set 
up  in  behalf  of  the  ministry  of  reconciliation,  cannot  be 
sustained,  since  these  men,  not  being  inspired,  are  fallible 
and  may  misinform  their  fellow  men,  which  it  were  blas- 
phemy to  say  the  voice  of  God  might  do — let  such  an  one 
call  to  mind,  that  the  present  ministers  of  the  word  have 
this  advantage  over  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  that 
whereas  those  prophets  received  the  communications  of 
the  divine  will,  in  sundry  parts,  here  a  little  and  there  a 
little,  unto  us  are  committed  at  one  and  the  same  time, 
the  whole  mass  of  the  inspired  oracles,  both  of  the  old 
and  the  new  dispensations;  whereby  we  are  far  better  fur- 
nished as  organs  of  the  counsel  of  God  to  mankind,  than 
tliey  were,  although  unto  them  the  manifestation*  of  the 
Spirit  were  immediate  and  fresh.  For  all  those  manifes- 
tations, whenever  and  to  whomsoever  first  made,  havinjr 
been  written  down  under  infallible  guidance,  and  the  re- 
cord intrusted  to  an  almighty  guardianship,  are  at  this 
moment  as  genuine,  as  excellent,  and  as  directly  from 

2* 


XV  111  SEHMOX. 

the  Spirit,  as  if  they  had  just  been  given  to  the  world: 
The  only  difference  is,  that  while  ancient  prophets  re- 
ceived them  in  visions,  dreams,  extasies,  and  trances, 
they  are  presented  to  our  minds  through  the  medium,  and 
surely  not  less  desirable  medium,  of  letters.  Though  the 
Christian  ministry,  then,  be  not  inspired  men,  they  possess 
all  the  inspirations  ever  given — all  that  God  has  thought 
needful,  for  the  benefit,  whether  of  his  ministers  them- 
selves, or  those  to  whom  he  sends  them.  What  prophet 
was  ever  so  thoroughly  furnished  to  his  work,  as  far  as 
inspiration  could  furnish  him,  as  the  New  Testament  man 
of  God? 

But  it  will  doubtless  not  escape  recollection,  that  the 
ministry  may  misinterpret  inspired  Scripture;  to  meet 
which  seeming  argument  against  their  being  considered  as 
"the  voice  of  the  Lord,"  let  me  put  you  in  mind,  that  nei- 
ther did  the  ancient  prophets  fully  comprehend  some  of  their 
own  inspired  deliverances,  but  were  left  to  discover,  in 
the  free  exercise  of  their  own  fallible  understandings,  what, 
and  what  manner  of  time,  the  Spirit  which  was  in  them  did 
signify,  in  his  deep  revelations  to  them  concerning  things 
to  come.  Inspired  prophets,  then,  commenting  upon  their 
own  oracles,  might  perhaps  err,  as  the  Christian  ministry 
may  and  do,  in  their  commentaries  on  inspired  Scripture. 
But  the  prophets,  notwithstanding  the  possibility  of  their 
misinterpreting  some  things,  were  the  mouth  of  the  Lord 
to  mankind;  and  so,  notwithstanding  a  like  imperfection 
in  our  case,  may  be  the  regular  preachers  of  the  everlast- 
ing gospel.  Take  a  distinction  between  the  pure  dicta- 
tions of  the  Spirit,  and  our  uninspired  expositions  and  rea- 
sonings upon  them,  and  understand  us  as  extending  the 
hio-h  ministral  communications,  whether  of  prophets  or 
preachers,  not  a  hair-breadth  beyond  the  former,  and 
where  is  the  arrogance  or  the  ill-consequence  in  either 


case  of  pronouncing  these  communications  "  the  voice  of 
the  Lord."  If  preachers  speculate,  and  sometimes,  per- 
haps, they  may  do  even  that  to  edification  unless  they 
seek  to  become  wise  above  what  is  written,  let  them  ap- 
prize the  people  that  they  are  not  then  presuming  to  speak 
in  the  name  of  the  Lord;  as  the  prophet  who  told  a  dream, 
as  a. dream  should  have  let  it  pass — let  but  this  needful 
precaution  be  used  by  preachers,  and  let  the  people  care- 
fully make  the  foremen tioned  distinction,  and  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  their  receiving  as  inspired  doctrine  the 
commandments  and  speculations  of  men. 

Still,  perhaps,  some  cannot  but  stand  in  doubt  of  this 
view  of  the  ministerial  function,  as  attaching  to  it  a  sa- 
credness  and  a  sanction  unwarranted  by  observation. 
Among  those  who  profess  to  exercise  that  function,  there 
is  a  radical  discordance  both  in  doctrine  and  life:  Some 
uncpuestionably  are  not  the  Lord's  mouth,  and  what  sure 
proof  is  there  that  such  sacred  honor  belongs  to  any  of 
them?  Now  freely  do  we  grant,  nay,  loudly  protest,  that 
there  are  indeed  false  teachers,  bearing  the  name  of 
Christian  ministers,  who  privily  and  otherwise  bring  in 
damnable  heresies,  even  denying  the  Lord  who  bought 
them;  but  is  it  not  forgotten  that  there  were  false  prophets 
of  old,  who  made  the  people  of  God  to  err  through  their 
"lies"  and  their  "lightness?"  And  if  in  the  presence 
of  many  hundreds  of  such  deceivers,  one  solitary  Elias  or 
Micaiah  could  stand  forth  and  sound  out  a  voice  as  con- 
vincingly the  Lord's,  as  if  no  counterfeit  of  that  voice 
had  ever  been  attempted,  so  may  the  regular  ministry  now 
on  the  stage,  show  credentials,  no  less  clear,  of  a  divine 
commission,  in  the  midst  of  all  the  varieties  of  self-sent 
preachers  on  the  face  of  the  whole  earth.  Indeed,  com- 
plaint on  the  ground  now  taken  is  as  perverse,  in  this  case, 
as  it  could  be  in  any  other,  wherein  genuine  excellence 


XX  SERMON. 

should  be  denied  existence,  merely  because  there  are  pre- 
tenders who  say  they  have  it,  and  have  not.  Real  and 
apparent,  genuine  and  spurious,  are  designations  which 
men  find  occasions  to  use,  in  reference  to  almost  every 
thing  with  which  they  have  to  do;  and  shall  they,  there- 
fore, become  universal  skeptics?  All  things  in  this  world 
are  such  and  so  evidenced,  as  to  suit  a  state  of  trial;  and 
if  this  be  proof  of  divine  wisdom  and  goodness  on  the  gene- 
ral scale,  why  should  not  these  attributes  be  recognized 
as  displayed,  particularly,  in  the  plan  of  Providence  con- 
cerning the  ministration  of  God's  saving  counsel  and 
grace? 

But  now  while  you  yield  to  the  conclusiveness  of  these 
observations,  you  are  probably  but  the  more  solicitous  to 

knOW  THE    MARKS    OF    THE    TRUE    MINISTRY,  that  VOU  may 

be  sure  of  not  paying  your  personal  attendance  where 
"the  voice"  which  "crieth"  is  not  that  of  the  Lord,  but 
another. 

How,  while  one  saith,  lo  here,  and  another  lo  there, 
is  many  a  poor  wayfaring  man  to  know  whither  he  must 
go?  Is  his  rustic  ear  acute  enough  to  try  this  confusion  of 
exclamations,  and  distinguish  the  heavenly  cry  amidst  all 
the  imitations  of  it  which  the  father  of  lies  hath  been  able 
to  invent?  Men  of  corrupt  minds  are  often  in  great  fear, 
where  no  fear  is,  and  surely  there  is  none  here,  although 
the  show  of  danger  be  not  small.  Scorners  and  sectarists 
have  led  heady  and  heedless  people  into  the  apprehension 
of  an  insurmountable  difficulty,  which  is,  in  fact,  no  dif- 
ficulty at  all.  And  who  that  is  not  utterly  overpowered 
by  the  spirit  of  bigotry,  can  allow  himself  soberly  to  think, 
that  God  would  give  forth  his  compassionate  voice  for  the 
guidance  of  benighted  mortals  in  the  way  of  life,  and  not 
make  that  voice  intelligible  even  to  the  feeblest  mind,  in 


SERMON'.  XXI 

defiance  of  all  the  great  deceiver  can  do  to  drown  or  to 
mimic  it?  How  can  it  be  the  opinion  of  any  thoughtful 
mind,  that  unless  a  man  be  learned  and  logical  enough  to 
explore  and  sift  the  arguments  for  and  against  the 
claims  of  a  certain  denomination,  to  be  considered  as 
descending  with  its  ministers  in  an  unbroken  succession, 
from  the  apostles;  unless  he  can  do  all  this,  he  cannot 
know,  by  sound  conviction  of  his  own  understanding, 
but  that  he  is  the  dupe  of  a  false  teacher,  who,  in  the  guise 
of  a  sheep,  may  be  inwardly  a  ravenous  wolf?  In  no  such 
way  did  Christ  instruct  his  disciples  to  satisfy  themselves 
as  to  the  true  character  of  teachers  professing  to  have 
been  sent  from  God?  He  gave  them  a  test,  at  once  infalli- 
ble, and  so  easy  of  application,  that  any  unlearned  man  or 
child  may  use  it,  as  will  as  a  master  of  Israel.  Not 
by  their  having  the  apostles  at  the  beginning  of  their 
ministerial  line — no,  said  He,  who  was  even  higher  than 
the  apostles,  but  "by  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them. 
Do  men  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  or  figs  of  thistles?"  Here — 
I  would  think  it  no  boldness  to  affirm,  in  the  midst  of  the 
whole  multitude  of  strivers  for  exclusive  apostolic  counte- 
nance— here,  is  the  true  criterion  of  ministerial  preten- 
sions. A  minister  exemplifying  the  heavenly  spirit  of  Christ 
in  his  walk  before  the  world,  and  in  his  doctrinal  inculca- 
tions ever  enforcing  the  pure  and  entire  truth  of  the  gospel, 
and  thus  striving  to  win  souls  and  build  up  converts  in  their 
most  holy  faith — such  a  minister,  of  whatever  Christian 
denomination,  approved  by  his  brethren  and  having  a  seal 
to  his  commission  in  the  hearts,  perhaps,  of  hundreds  be- 
gotten, through  his  preaching,  to  holiness  and  heaven — is 
a  minister  of  Christ,  who  hath  entered  by  the  door  into 
the  sheepfold,  the  porter  having  opened  to  him  as  a  true 
shepherd  of  the  sheep,  however  some  may  suspect  that 
hands  were  laid  upon  him  which  wanted  pure  ordaining 
virtue.     But,  on  the  contrary,  a  minister  who,  by  light- 


iiess  of  manners,  or  by  lies  in  his  preaching,  causes  God's 
people  to  err  from  the  narrow  way  of  the  gospel;  who,  in 
the  tendency  of  his  life  and  ministrations,  makes  little 
distinction  between  the  world  and  the  saints,  whether  in 
present  character  or  eternal  destiny;  who  pleads  against 
a  strict,  and  in  favor  of  an  easy  and  fashionable  religion; 
and  who,  instead  of  having  a  seal  to  his  ministry  in  the 
hearts  of  the  elect,  has  there  a  witness  against  him,  whose 
complaining  voice,  day  and  night,  enters  into  the  ears  of 
the  Lord  of  Sabaoth — such  a  minister,  though  of  a  church 
unquestionably  the  most  apostolical  in  Christendom,  is  one 
against  whom  all  heaven,  if  it  might  speak,  would  protest, 
and  whom  every  one  who  cares  for  his  soul,  ought  to  shun, 
as  a  kid  should  shun  the  den  of  a  hungry  lion. 

II.  So  evident  it  is  that  "  the  voice  of  the  Lord"  truly 
"crieth,"  in  the  testimony  of  the  Christian  ministry;  and  so 
easy  is  it,  to  distinguish  that  voice  amidst  all  evil  attempts 
to  assume  or  imitate  it: — Now,  the  next  thing  which  the 
text  and  the  occasion  of  this  service  lead  us  to  set  forth 
in  our  discourse,  is  the  infatuation  of  mankind  in  not  dis- 
covering the  name  and  majesty  of  God,  through  the  me- 
dium of  his  voice  lifted  up  and  crying  in  our  humble  tes- 
timony. That  this  discovery  is  not  made,  except  by  a 
very  small  remnant,  it  were  preposterous  to  dispute, 
while  almost  the  whole  world  as  evidently  lieth  in  wick- 
edness, at  this  day,  as  when  the  trumpet  of  the  gospel  was 
first  sounded  by  the  apostles.  For  such  surely  would  not 
be  the  state  of  the  world — they  would  not  be  slumbering 
so  securely  in  the  lethean  arms  of  their  sins,  with  the 
clouds  of  eternal  wrath  gathering  and  thundering  about 
them,  if  they  discerned  in  the  simple  cry  of  their  preachers 
the  presence  of  the  almighty  and  uncontrollable  will.  No, 
they  neither  discern  it,  nor  believe  it  to  be  there;  but 
rather,  in  their  deceived  heart,  if  not  with  open  clamor. 


SERMON.  XXIU 

they  scorn  the  very  pretence  that  God  is  with  his  minis- 
ters, and  speaks  with  their  mouth — they  supremely  scorn 
it,  as  the  consummation  of  arrogance  or  delusion.   "  Who," 
say  they,   "are  these  that  speak  as  if  they  were  God  him- 
self, and  were  armed  with  celestial  power?    Do  we  not 
see  that  they  are  sinful  mortals  as  well  as  we?"  If  any 
thing  pertaining  to  the  persons  or  circumstances  of  the 
ministry— their  weakness,  their  poverty,  their  obscurity, 
their  want  of  great  learning  and  relinement,  their  having 
no  connexion    with    courts,  and    no    countenance   from 
princes — if  things  like  these  seem  appendages  not  likely 
to  be  found  about  the  ministry  of  Him  who  covereth  him- 
self with  light  as  with  a  garment,  and  stretcheth  out  the 
heavens  as  a  curtain,  and  layeth  the  beams  of  his  chambers 
in   waters,  and   hath  his  way  in   the  whirlwind  and  the 
storm,  and  the  clouds  are  the  dust  of  his  feet — if  any  one 
think  such  a  being  would  be  ashamed  of  a  ministry  so  mean 
as  are  the  preachers  of  the  gospel,  then  let  him  deny  that 
God  spake  by  Elias,  and  Amos,  and  other  prophets  of  like 
personal  disadvantages:  and  let  him  also  justify  the  Jews 
in  rejecting  their  Messiah,  on  these  same  grounds;  and  let 
him  hold,  moreover,  that  the  fishermen  of  Galilee  were  not 
the  holy  apostles  of  the  Lamb,  but  emissaries  of  Satan.  If 
God  would  have  ministers  great  and  dignified  enough  to 
be  worthy  of  their  office,  where,  among  all  the  sons  of  men 
or  even  his  holy  angels,  could  they  be  found?  Should  we 
measure  the  divine  majesty  by  any  personal  exhibitions  of 
grandeur  in  the  power  of  archangels  to  make,  we  should 
limit  and   degrade  the   Holy  One   even  to   the  depriving 
Him  of  his  essential  glory.     Why  then  do  we  not  acknow- 
ledge the  wisdom  of  God  in  choosing  representatives  of 
Himself,  whose  personal  appearance  and  character  could 
never  be  thought  of,  as  the  medium  of  judging  concern- 
ing His  nature?  Other  obvious  reasons  there  are,  why  the 
meanness  of  the  ministry  should  be  their  recommenda- 


XXIV  SERMON. 

tion;  but  these  need  not  be  mentioned :  No  "  man  of  wis- 
dom," none  who  is  not  smitten  with  the  spirit  of  slumber, 
having  eyes  that  he  should  not  see,  and  ears  that  he  should 
not  hear,  will  fail  to  discern  the  excellency  of  the  gospel, 
merely  because  we  have  that  treasure  in  earthen  vessels. 
No  excuse  for  this  insensibility  to  the  majesty  of  God,  can 
be  derived  from  the  manner  in  which  that  majesty  reveals 
itself.  If  it  should  be  revealed  daily  in  voices  directly 
from  the  skies,  and  amidst  all  the  apparatus  of  terror 
which  invested  Mount  Sinai  at  the  giving  of  the  law, 
while  such  a  mode  of  disclosure  would  be  wholly  incon- 
gruous with  God's  good  and  wise  purposes,  and  with  the 
present  state  and  circumstances  of  man,  it  needs  no  pene- 
tration to  see  that  those  ever-sounding  voices  would  be  as 
little  likely  to  secure  due  acknowledgment,  as  the  voice  of 
nature  ceaselessly  proclaiming,  in  all  her  works  and  move- 
ments, the  presence  of  her  God.  "The  man  of  wisdom" 
will  consider,  not  so  much  the  medium  by  which  "the 
Lord's  voice  crieth,"  as  the  evidences  that  the  voice  is 
truly  that  of  the  Lord;  and  when  that  is  the  fact,  the  evi- 
dences of  it,  most  assuredly,  cannot  be  justly  weighed  for  a 
moment,  without  overwhelming  the  mind  with  conviction. 
For  is  it  even  supposable  that  God  may  speak  and  room  be 
left  to  doubt  as  to  the  source  of  the  utterance?  Must  there 
not  be  something  in  the  very  voice  itself,  marking  it  as 
impossible  to  have  come,  save  from  the  mouth  of  the  Lord? 
Can  any  creature  speak  like  the  Creator?  A  man  is  not  so 
far  above  a  brute  as  God  is  above  the  greatest  of  his  crea- 
tures; and  if  a  man's  voice  sound  differently  from  a  brute's, 
must  God's  be  undistinguishable  from  a  man's?  Let  all 
the  voices  in  the  whole  creation  cry,  and  after  that  the 
Lord's;  shall  He,  before  whom  the  whole  creation  itself  is 
as  the  small  dust  of  the  balance,  utter  a  voice  so  little 
wiser,  greater,  better,  than  every  other,  that  it  is  hard  to 
discern  the  difference?  Compare  God's  workmanship  to 


SERMON.  XXV 

that  of  a  creature's.  What  pencil  can  paint,  what  hand 
can  build  like  His?  How  coarse  and  clumsy  seem  the  cun- 
ningest  copies  of  art  in  the  presence  of  His  originals?  And 
if  the  difference  be  so  vast  in  what  He  does,  shall  it  be 
almost  undiscernable  in  what  He  says?  When  the  mind 
which  contains  the  original  conceptions  of  all  the  forms  of 
beauty,  and  sublimity,  and  strength,  and  goodness,  which 
are  to  be  found  in  creation' — when  the  fountain  of  all  in- 
telligence, opens  His  mouth,  shall  nothing  be  expressed  be- 
yond the  power  of  a  breathing  atom  to  utter?  What  else 
were  to  be  expected  but  that  what  ever  is  truly  divine, 
whether  it  be  deed  or  word,  will  bear  the  impress  of 
divinity  so  clearly  in  itself,  that  it  need  but  be  considered 
in  order  to  be  known  as  wholly  unlike  what  might  come 
from  a  creature.  So  all  likelihood  leads  us  to  conclude; 
and  if  any  man  on  the  earth  will  now  candidly  hearken  to 
the  voice  of  which  we  speak,  he  will  find  in  this  instance 
our  conclusion  confirmed:  that  is  such  a  voice,  that  no 
ear  is  so  dull  but  must  confess  it  divine,  unless  resolved 
against  a  fair  and  submissive  hearing.  Think  ye  that  the 
Christian  ministry,  whether  of  the  present  or  any  past 
generation,  could  of  themselves  have  uttered  such  a 
voice?  Could  their  narrow  and  sinful  hearts  have  con- 
ceived such  thoughts  as  that  voice  reveals?  0  could  the 
tongue  of  men  or  angels,  unless  moved  by  the  inspiration 
of  God,  have  uttered,  and  uttered  with  an  eloquence 
such  as  mortal  ears  never  elsewhere  heard,  such  high  les- 
sons of  virtue  and  righteousness,  such  sublime  concep- 
tions of  God  and  his  works,  such  humiliating  views  of 
man  and  his  state,  such  a  scheme  of  grace,  such  histories, 
such  proverbs,  such  parables,  such  psalms,  such  prophe- 
cies, as  that  marvellous  voice  repeats,  of  which  ministers 
of  the  gospel  are  appointed  to  be  the  echo,  from  land  to 
land,  and  age  to  age.     But  the  height  of  human  infatua- 

3 


XXVI  SERMON. 

tion  will  not  be  fully  discovered  without  considering  also 
the  effects  and  achievements  of  that  testimony  which  men 
so  dishonor.  If  a  voice  should  be  uttered  which  should 
break  the  cedars  of  Lebanon,  make  Sirion  to  skip  like  a 
young  unicorn,  dry  up  rivers,  set  the  mountains  on 
fire,  and  melt  down  the  ancient  rocks,  almo?t  as  much 
amazement  would  seize  you  to  hear  a  man  question 
whether  that  voice  came  from  God,  as  to  witness  the 
proof  of  its  stupendous  efficiency 5  yet  it  is  certain  that 
even  such  a  voice  would  not;  accomplish  greater  wonders 
than  that  hath  done  in  which  the  world  sees  nothing  to 
awaken  their  attention.  It  needs  more  than  a  mortal's 
tongue  to  tell,  and  more  than  a  mortal's  heart  to  under- 
stand, the  number  and  excellency  of  the  doings  of  this 
voice.  It  hath  produced  a  new  creation |  a  creation  re- 
splendent with  the  Maker's  glory,  in  a  far  higher  sense 
than  was  the  outward  world  in  the  freshness  of  its  being. 
It  hath  dispersed  a  worse  than  the  primeval  darkness, 
with  a  better  than  the  primeval  light.  It  hath  built  for 
ruined  man  a  far  fairer  than  his  first  habitation,  and  new- 
made  him  in  the  likeness  of  God,  that  he  might  be  fitted  to 
dwell  in  it;  and  scattering  the  powers  of  darkness  before 
him,  subduing  hell  and  death  under  his  feet,  it  hath 
brought  him  triumphantly  to  his  new  Paradise,  and  opened 
its  everlasting  gates  for  his  admission,  and  in  that  bright 
world  it  hath  enthroned  him  a  king  and  a  priest  unto 
God,  to  reign  and  shine  for  ever  as  the  sun  in  the  firma- 
ment. To  use  plainer  speech,  it  hath  in  unnumbered  in- 
stances illumined  poor  man's  benighted  mind,  melted  his 
stony  heart  into  tenderness  and  love,  conquered  and  re- 
newed his  obstinate  will,  refined  and  sanctified  his  vile 
affections,  broken  him  oft'  from  all  manner  of  vicious 
habits,  and  established  him  in  habits  of  the  strictest  pu- 
rity, given  him  immortal  hope  for  the  gloom  of  despair, 
spoken  his  storms  of  trouble  into  peace,  made  great  tribu- 


sermon.  xxvii 

lation  the  occasion  to  him  of  heavenly  rejoicing,  and 
changed  for  him  the  grave  into  the  gate  of  heaven.  Such 
have  been  and  such  are  some  of  the  actual  and  manifest 
effects  of  this  voice:  but  what  more  might  not  be  added? 
If  there  is  any  thing  desirable  in  refinement  of  taste  and 
manners,  in  learning  and  the  arts,  in  liberty  and  peace, 
the  praise  of  it  will  not  be  bestowed  where  it  is  most  due, 
unless  it  be  acknowledged  as  an  incidental  legitimate  fruit 
of  the  same  wondrous  voice.  How  soon  would  our  entire 
world  be  as  a  vast  field  of  blood,  where  wickedness  in 
every  frightful  form  would  raven  without  restraint,  if  the 
voice  which  speaks  through  the  gospel  ministry  should  be 
silent.  And  yet  mankind  see  nothing  of  God  in  it,  but 
for  the  most  part  hold  it  in  less  esteem,  than  many  of  the 
empty  cries  which  they  raise  among  themselves. 

III.  Now  this  in  itself  is  an  evil  more  deplorable  than 
every  other  in  the  present  lot  of  man;  a  strange  evil  truly; 
at  the  same  time,  the  greatest  of  calamities  and  the 
greatest  of  sins;  and  yet  what  we  are  in  the  next  place 
briefly  to  declare  is,  that  bad  as  it  is  in  itself,  it  draws  af- 
ter it  worse  consequences — consequences  which  it  had 
been  well  for  him  who  has  to  meet,  that  he  never  had  been 
born.  These  consequences  will  teach  the  incorrigible 
despisers  of  our  testimony  what  it  is  they  hold  in  such 
contempt.  It  now  appears  to  them  as  having  nothing  in 
it  to  be  feared;  they  take  liberties  with  it  and  find  no 
hurt;  they  hear  it  or  hear  it  not,  as  may  suit  their  conve- 
nience or  caprice:  they  mock  at  it;  they  gainsay  it;  they 
treat  it  in  whatsoever  manner  they  please,  and  yet  it  in- 
jures not  a  hair  of  their  head.  They  sometimes  do  worse; 
seeking  even  to  silence  it,  by  stifling  the  breath  that  gives 
it  expression.  They  lay  their  hands  on  the  persons  of  the 
ministry,  they  scourge,  they  imprison,  they  kill  them, 
they  account  them  as  sheep  for  the  slaughter,  and  still  what 


XXV111  SERMON* 

harm  do  they  suffer?  So  dealt  the  Jews  with  the  prophets, 
the  apostles,  and  the  Prince  of  Life  himself;  and  thou- 
sands of  God's  faithful  witnesses  have  fared  in  like  man- 
ner in  subsequent  times.  If  this  voice  be  the  Lord's  why- 
is  it  not  proved  to  be  his,  by  some  instant  stroke  of  divine 
anger  on  every  one  who  offers  it  the  least  disrespect? 
The. patience  of  God  which  bears  so  long  with  the  world's 
blasphemies  and  crimes;  the  spirit  of  Jesus  which  re- 
strained him  from  coming  down  from  the  cross  to  prove  his 
Messiahship  at  the  challenge  of  his  murderers,  is  not  less 
mysterious  than  that  the  miracle  performed  on.  Lot's  wife 
is  not  repeated  upon  every  one  who  in  any  way  dishonours 
the  gospel  ministry.  Could  the  judgment,  however,  of 
these  disdainful  men  be  now  realized,  no  one  would  com- 
plain that  it  seemed  to  linger.  As  the  voice  of  civil  law 
which  is  treated  as  if  it  were  without  strength  by  success- 
ful robbers  and  ruffians,  appears  sufficiently  powerful  at 
the  terrible  moment  of  their  shameful  execution ;  so  when 
the  doom  of  these  contemners  of  "the  Lord's  voice"  has 
once  overtaken  them,  that  now  unavenged  voice,  will  con- 
vincingly show  whose  it  is,  by  inflictions  as  demonstrative 
of  an  almighty  hand,  as  the  creation  of  the  world.  Time 
allows  us  not  to  enlarge  here  beyond  one  or  two  remarks. 
When  the  word  of  God  came  to  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  a 
man  of  like  passions  with  ourselves,  "See,"  it  was  said  to 
him,  "I  have  this  day  set  thee  over  the  nations,  and  over 
the  kingdoms,  to  root  out,  and  to  pull  down,  and  to  destroy, 
and  to  throw  down,  and  to  plant  and  to  build;"  so  tremen- 
dous was  the  strength  that  dwelt  in  a  prophet's  tongue: 
yet  was  it  not  equal  to  that  with  which  Christ  has  armed 
the  commissioned  heralds  of  the  gospel.  "I  give  unto  thee 
the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven;"  "Whatsoever  ye 
shall  bind  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in  heaven,  and  whatso- 
ever ye  shall  loose  on  earth  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven;" 
"Whosesover  sins  ye  remit,  they  shall  be  remitted  unto 


SERMON.  XXIX 

them,  and  whosesoever  sins  ye  retain  they  are  retained;" 
"Go  ye  into  all  the  world  and  preach  the  gospel  to  every 
creature,  he  that  believeth  and  is  baptized  shall  be  saved, 
but  he  that  helieveth  not  shall  be  damned."  0  when  the 
voice  of  the  evangelical  ministry  shall  be  honoured  by  the 
full  revelation  of  the  power  here  given  it  by  Christ,  no 
creature  will  be  left  in  doubt  whether  that  voice  be  their 
own,  or  His  who  called  the  world  out  of  nothing  and  it 
came.  Then  will  be  seen  how  truly  Christ  said,  "He  that 
heareth  you,  heareth  me;  and  he  that  despiseth  you,  despis- 
eth  me:  and  he  that  despiseth  me,  despiseth  him  that  sent 
me." 

This  also  should  be  remembered ,that  the  penalty  of  these 
despisers  though  not  immediate,  does  not  slumber  for  a  mo- 
ment; neither  is  it  slack  in  its  approach  as  some  count 
slackness.  It  is  coming,  as  directly  as  the  arrow  to  its 
mark;  and  when  arrived  it  will  be  thought  that  light  itself 
is  not  so  swift.  Nor  are  there  wanting  tokens  of  its  ter- 
ribleness  and  its  haste.  For  God,  still  rich  in  mercy, 
gives  much  warning  to  rebellious  men;  bringing  forth  the 
cloud  of  his  indignation  as  from  afar,  with  his  lightning 
playing  gently  before  it,  that  they  may  be  without  no  in- 
ducement to  make  their  escape  from  the  fury  of  the  com- 
ing storm.  Since  they  contemptuously  turn  away  their  ears 
from  his  "voice,"  he  lifts  up  his  menacing  "rod,"  to  alarm 
them  if  possible  out  of  their  desperate  stoutness.  He  vis- 
its them  with  corrective  stripes:  they  are  stricken,  smit- 
ten, and  afflicted  in  their  minds,  in  their  persons,  in  their 
families,  in  their  connexions,  in  all  their  outward  circum- 
stances; others  are  struck  with  death  for  their  admonition; 
child,  lover,  and  friend,  one,  another,  and  then  another, 
are  known  no  more  in  the  sphere  of  their  social  inter- 
course; and  yet  for  all  this  his  comminatory  anger  is  not 
turned  away,  but  his  hand  is  stretched  out  still.  Lo,  all 
these  things  worketh  God  oftentimes  with  man,  to  briDg 


XXX  SERMON'* 

back  his  soul  from  the  pit,  to  be  enlightened  with  the  light 
of  the  living.  But  when  these  methods  of  correction  have 
failed  of  their  designed  result,  when  men  after  proving 
their  contempt  on  the  voice  of  the  Lord,  refuse  also  to 
hear  the  rod,  and  who  hath  appointed  it,  God  having  en- 
dured these  vessels  of  wrath,  with  so  much  long  suffering 
will  hasten  to  show  his  wrath  and  make  his  power  known 
in  their  everlasting  destruction. 

But  there  is  one  way  whereby  God  sometimes  reveals 
his  admonitive  indignation  against  the  refusers  of  his  mer- 
cy, which  though  seldom  so  esteemed  by  them,  is  of  all 
others  by  far  the  most  dreadful  in  the  view  of  the  man  of 
wisdom;  and  the  event  which  has  this  day  convened  us 
makes  it  specially  proper  to  mention  it.  It  is  when  God 
withdraws  his  voice  and  appoints  silence  to  instruct  them: 
when  he  smites  not  them  but  his  own  ambassador;  and  call- 
ing his  rejected  witness  home,  leaves  them  only  his  grave 
and  his  dust  to  remind  them  of  eternity.  This  is  a  kind 
of  warning  which  almost  no  one  lays  to  heart;  and  yet,  in 
the  way  of  reproof,  what  could  the  Lord  do  more  than  this, 
to  strike  the  rock  of  impenitency  into  contrition? 

It  were  most  ungracious  to  insinuate  that  the  recalof  that 
very  eminent  man,  who  so  long  sounded  out  the  "Lord's 
voice"  from  this  place,  should  be  regarded  as  a  judgment  upon 
the  congregation;  but  this  we  may  freely  say,  that  every 
person,  "man  of  wisdom,"  or  otherwise,  who  was  accus- 
tomed to  hear  the  word  at  his  mouth,  should  not  be  unex- 
ercised in  deep  thought  and  feeling,  by  that  solemn  act  of  a 
roost  deep  meaning  Providence.  Especially  does  it  con- 
cern those  of  you  who  though  his  testimony  is  ended,  re- 
main yet  in  your  sins,  to  ponder  this,  to  you  surely,  serious 
occurrence.  How  often  have  you  heard  from  him  as  he 
was  about  closing  a  powerful  argument  against  your  unbe- 
lief, the  tender  premonition  that  his  days  were  almost  num- 


SERMON.  XXXI 

berecl:  what  he  then  said  has  come  to  pass;  and  how  so- 
berly does  the  fulfilment  of  his  word  in  this  instance  warn 
you,  that  though  heaven  and  earth  may  pass  away,  nothing 
that  he  ever  spoke  to  you,  "as  the  voice  of  the  Lord," 
shall  fail  to  be  accomplished.  He  is  not  more  certainly 
gone  the  way  of  all  the  earth,  nor  was  it  at  all  more  cer- 
tain that  he  would  go,  than  that  what  he  has  often  told  you 
out  of  the  Scriptures  respecting  the  final  doom  of  the 
wicked,  will  be  fulfilled  in  yourselves,  if  you  do  not  re- 
pent. 

But,  however  his  removal  should  be  interpreted  in 
respect  to  the  flock  of  which  he  was  specially  the  shep- 
herd, it  reads  a  lesson  to  the  church  and  the  community 
at  large,  which  nothing  but  the  stupidity  reprehended  in 
this  discourse  can  misunderstand.  When  one  of  the 
first  luminaries  in  our  heaven  disappears,  shall  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  land  have  no  concern  at  the  event?  When 
Elias  is  taken  up,  shall  the  cry  be  nowhere  heard,  "My 
Father,  my  Father,  the  chariot  of  Israel  and  the  horse- 
men thereof."  We  shall  not  now  venture  to  present  a 
character  of  this  great  man;  which,  whoever  attempts, 
should  aim  at  an  exactness  of  resemblance,  such  as  when 
in  water  face  answereth  to  face,  lest,  by  being  confronted 
with  the  very  precise  image  which  he  has  left  of  himself 
in  your  hearts,  and  in  his  works,  it  should  be  reproved  as 
untrue  to  so  rare  a  specimen  of  God's  handiwork.  Our 
remarks  concerning  him,  will  be  such  only  as  may  be 
prompted  by  an  endeavor  to  enforce  the  instruction  af- 
forded us  by  the  Providence  which  has  removed  him.* 

*  It  may  be  well  to  record  in  this  place,  the  following  biographi- 
cal particulars  concerning-  this  distinguished  man.  He  was  born 
February  21st,  1769,  at  Lewes,  in  the.  state  of  Delaware.  He  was 
graduated  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1788.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  in  Susses  county,   Delaware,  in  1790.     He 


XXXU  SERMON. 

While  ministers  of  a  certain  class,  possessing  little  in- 
tellectual furniture,  besides  a  bare  knowledge  of  the  es- 
sential truths  of  the  gospel,  are,  with  warm  spirits,  with  a 
most  exemplary  zeal,  and  with  much  success,  constantly 
employed  in  applying  those  truths  to  the  hearts  of  their 
fellow  men,  they  are  sometimes  disposed  to  hold  in  too 
little  esteem,  the  labors  of  those  of  their  brethren,  whose 
taste,  learning,  and  sense  of  duty,  incline  them  to  deep 
research  into  the  principles  of  things,  to  careful  analysis 
of  complex  subjects,  to  critical  investigation,  and  minute 
exegesis  of  the  sacred  text,  to  elaborate  inquiry  into  ec- 
clesiastical antiquities  and  the  opinions  and  productions 
of  early  days,  and  to  the  knowledge  and  solution  of  all 
the  most  subtile  objections  that  have  at  any  time  been 
urged  by  heretics  and  unbelievers,  against  the  true  Chris- 
tian faith;  as  if  without  such  vast  labors  at  the  fountains 
of  wisdom,  these  less  curious  divines  could  have  been 
supplied  with  some  of  those  sweet  streams,  of  which  they 
are  content  to  drink,  without  considering  to  whom  next  to 
God  they  are  most  indebted  for  the  privilege.     When  our 

was  licensed  to  preach  the  gospel  in  1804,  and,  in  the  same  year, 
was  ordained  and  installed  as  pastor  over  the  united  congrega- 
tions of  Lewes,  Coolspring,  and  Indian  river.  In  1806,  he  was 
advised  by  the  Presbytery  of  Lewes  to  accept  the  call  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  church  in  Philadelphia,  to  which  he  removed  in  the 
same  year.  In  May,  1828,  he  removed  to  his  farm,  about  20  miles 
from  Philadelphia,  on  account  of  the  infirm  state  of  his  health; 
preaching,  nevertheless,  to  his  congregation  frequently  as  his 
health  permitted.  His  resignation  of  his  pastoral  charge  was  ac- 
cepted in  the  spring  of  1830.  In  the  same  season,  he  visited  the 
city,  and  preached  for  the  last  time  to  his  people.  He  triumphant- 
ly departed  to  heavenly  rest,  December  9th,  1830,  at  nine  o'clock 
in  the  evening,  and  was  buried  on  the  following  Monday  (Dec. 
13th)  in  a  spot,  selected  by  himself,  in  the  grave-yard  of  the  Nesha- 
mony  church. 


friend  fell  asleep,  in  what  pulpit  of  this  land,  was  a  man 
to  be  found  so  enriched  as  himself,  with  the  fruits  of  this 
patient,  and,  at  this  clay,  too  unusual  researches  of  mind  ? 
Our  ears  never  listened  to  a  preacher  whose  common  dis- 
courses discovered  as  rich  treasures  of  recondite  learning. 
And  what  more  surprised  us  than  the  extent  and  variety 
of  his  acquisitions,  was  the  ease  and  simplicity,  and  nice 
exactness,  with  which,  on  all  occasions,  he  used  them. 
In  proportion  to  the  depth  and  difficulty  of  his  subjects, 
his  tongue  was  loosed  and  moved  nimbly  and  trippingly, 
as  in  its  favorite  sphere,  expressing  the  most  subtle  dis- 
tinctions and  discriminations  of  thought;  pursuing  the 
most  refined  and  complicate  argumentations;  collating, 
criticising,  paraphrasing,  Scriptures  hard  to  be  under- 
stood; reciting  out  of  ancient  and  uncommon  books,  his- 
torical testimonies,  and  statements  of  doctrine;  without 
the  assistance  of  notes,  and  yet  with  a  fluent  precision  and 
perspicuity  of  language  which  no  such  assistance  could 
have  improved. 

Another  recollection  of  him,  which  deepens  exceeding- 
ly our  sense  of  the  loss  we  sustain  by  his  departure,  is, 
that  with  his  great  elevation  in  other  respects  he  united  in 
a  rare  degree  what  transcends  all  other  excellence,  and 
is  the  highest  proof  of  true  greatness,  a  catholic  and  chari- 
table spirit.  We  never  knew  one  who  scrutinized  more 
severely  the  evidences  of  doctrine;  and  he  was,  conse- 
quently, when  convinced,  not  liable  to  be  soon  shaken  in 
mind;  nor  did  he  lightly  esteem  the  truth  which  with  so 
much  diligence  and  honesty  he  had  acquired,  or  think  it 
unimportant  that  others  should  be  ignorant  of  it,  much  less 
that  they  should  pervert  or  falsify  it.  But  his  reading  was 
too  various,  his  observation  too  wide,  his  acquaintance  with 
the  history  of  theological  strifes  too  ample,  his  persuasion 
too  lively,  that  the  differences  among  religious  parties  are 


XXXIV  SERMON. 

rather  referable  to  a  sectarian  than  a  truth-seeking  spirit, 
and  while  they  anathematize  one  another,  may  be  consis- 
tent with  the  existence,  in  some  degree,  of  real  piety  in 
both,  and  their  ultimate  reconciliation  in  heaven — he  was, 
in  a  word,  too  sound -minded  and  enlightened  a  man  to  be 
a  fierce  champion  of  an  ecclesiastical  shibboleth,  or  to  elimi- 
nate those  whom  he  might  suspect  of  having  no  readiness  in 
framing  to  pronounce  it  right.     He  was  among  the  wor- 
thiest of  those  ministers  in  our  own  denomination,  who, 
espousing  no  side  in  our  debates  about  orthodoxy,  are  will- 
ing to  let  those  debates  proceed  as  long  as  they  threaten 
no  schism,  but  when  that  danger  is  seen,  throw  in  their 
influence,  as  a  balance  wheel  in  a  vast  machine,  whose 
movement,  without  .such   a   regulator,    would  presently 
stop   with   a  terrific  crash  and  damage.     Such  was  the 
spirit  of  this  high-soul ed  man;  and  who  of  us  can  consider 
the  present  state,  might  we  not  almost  say,  crisis,  of  af- 
fairs in  our  church,  without  sighing  deeply  in  his  spirit, 
that  the  voice  which  he  could  raise,  were  he  now  in  the 
midst  of  us,  is  not  to  be  heard  again  till  time  shall  be  no 
longer. 

Nor  was  it  merely  in  his  high  place  as  a  minister  of 
Christ  that  he  singularly  honored  his  Master:  he  was  dis- 
tinguished by  simplicity  as  his  disciple,  not  less  than  by 
gifts  as  his  representative;  and  it  is  when  these  two  exist 
in  union,  that  they  become  worthy  of  admiration.  What 
a  charm  is  there  in  gifts  when  simplicity  exercises  them; 
and  how  venerable  is  simplicity  when  it  invests  illustrious 
gifts.  Never  have  we  seen  the  person,  in  whom  sim- 
plicity dwelt  in  an  equal  degree.  "Whether  in  his  public 
ministrations,  or  in  private  life,  this  great  man  was  unas- 
suming as  a  little  child,  claiming  no  distinctions  above 
the  plainest  individuals,  and  appearing  to  be  conscious  of 
no  superiority  to  them  in  understanding  and  knowledge. 


And  such  exemplifications  of  the  Spirit  of  Christ  are  not 
so  common  amongst  us  that  we  shall  suffer  little  by  this 
privation:  How  often  does   the  church,  not  to  say  the 
world,   concede  reputation  for  greatness,  where  it  is  no 
sooner  received  than  it  becomes  manifest  there  was  a  mis- 
take, by  the  immediate  taking  on  of  stateliness  which  it 
occasions?  Such  a  transcendent  instance  of  the  reverse  of 
this  weakness  was'not  to  be  lowly  rated  by  true  judges  of 
excellence,  and  by  them  at  least  the  loss  of  it  will  not 
be   unlamented.     With  such   rare   simplicity  in  such  a 
man,  it  was  unavoidable  that  other  great  virtues  should  be 
united:  in  two  of  which  especially,  he  was  almost  exces- 
sive.    How  did  justice,  as  beaming  from  his  example,  re- 
buke those  inconsistent  religionists,  who,  by  their  pious, 
would   fain  make    atonement  for  their  dishonest   deeds; 
and  how  did   his  generosity,  a  kindred  principle,  put  to 
shame  those  covetous  professors  who  uphoard  treasure  for 
themselves,  as  if  orphans  and   widows,  and  the  children 
of  want,  had  ceased  from  among  men.     Time  fails  us  to 
speak  of  his  other  high  excellencies;  the  strength  and 
calmness  of  his  feeling,  his  gravity  and  cheerfulness;  his 
ease,  pleasantness,  and  exhaustless  resources  in  conver- 
sation; and  his  most  exemplary  manner  of  life  in  his  fami- 
ly.    We  shall  leave  his  defects  to  be  reported  by  those 
who  would  remind  us  that  human  nature  is  imperfect; 
only  begging  them,  if  they  censure  his  excitability,  and 
his  too  great  confinement  at  home,  to  imitate  his  noble- 
bleness   in  retraction;    and  to  remember  what  an  invalid 
he  was  for  the  last  twenty  years,  how  open  his  door  ever 
stood  to  visiters,  and  what  a  good  use  he  made  of  re- 
tirement.*    It  being  our  purpose  by  these   remarks   to 


*  Dr.  Wilson's  self-seclusion  from  company  and  society-meet- 
ings should  not  be  imitated,  at  least  to  the  extent  to  which  he  prac- 


XXXVI  SERMON. 

stir  and  strengthen  in  our  minds  a  just  sense  of  the  dis- 
pensation which  has  taken  him  from  us  for  ever,  we  choose 
rather  to  remember,  to  what  a  height  of  excellence  he  at- 
tained, than  that  he  did  not  rise  beyond  it. 

It  does  not  alleviate  the   sadness    of  the   event    we 
deplore,  that  it  occurred  not  unexpectedly,  but  by  means 

tised  it,  by  the  generality  of  ministers  of  the  gospel:  he  had  rea- 
sons for  retirement  peculiar  to  himself;  but  the  best  and  most 
available  kind  of  influence  which  a  minister  may  exert,  especially 
in  a  large  city,  is,  for  the  most  part,  we  think,  that  which  prayer 
and  intense  study,  rather  than  free  intercourse  with  mankind,  and 
abundant  parochial  visiting,  are  adapted  to  supply.  With  few 
exceptions,  it  may  be  questioned,  whether  ministers  who  are  much 
abroad  in  the  families  of  a  city  congregation,  not  to  say  in  other 
social  circles,  do  not  receive  more  injury  to  themselves,  in  the  loss 
of  time,  in  discomposure  of  spirit,  in  dissipation  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing, than  is  compensated  by  any  benefit,  obtained  or  imparted,  in 
such  discursive  modes  of  pastoral  activity.  Where,  indeed,  the 
private  conversation  of  ministers  with  their  people,  is  like  Paul's 
preaching  "from  house  to  house," — a  succession  of  sermons  ad- 
dressed to  individuals  or  families,  unspeakable  good  may  be  both 
communicated  and  received,  and  ministerial  usefulness  and  in- 
fluence, and  even  power  in  the  pulpit,  be  greatly  promoted:  But 
the  gifts  of  ministers  must  be  very  peculiar,  or  there  must  be  an 
extraordinary  state  of  religious  feeling  in  their  congregations,  to 
admit  of  regular  parochial  visitation  being  so  conducted  in  such  a 
city,  for  instance,  as  Philadelphia.  At  least,  if  much  of  this  sort 
of  work  is  indispensable  to  the  success  of  the  gospel,  in  our  cities, 
there  should  be  more  than  one  minister  to  a  church;  for  certain  it 
is,  that  the  character  and  frequency  of  public  preaching,  the  at- 
tention to  benevolent  societies,  the  attendance  on  funerals,  and  the 
visitation  of  the  sick,  demanded  of  the  ministers  of  city  congrega- 
tions, in  this  day  of  unusual  excitement  and  action,  make  full  re- 
quisition on  all  their  time,  and  form  a  burden  of  effort  which  few 
men  can  long  endure,  without  exhaustion  and  perhaps  irreparable 
loss  of  health. 


SERMON.  XXXVU 

of  a  very  lingering  illness  which  slowly  enfeebled  his 
frame,  until  it  could  no  longer  perform  the  least  function 
of  life.  On  his  own  account  indeed  we  rejoice  that  the 
clays  of  his  patient  suffering  are  ended,  but  he  had  not  yet 
numbered  three-score  years  and  ten,  and  the  force  of  his 
mind  was  never  greater  than  at  the  moment  of  his  expi- 
ration. 

He  departed  prematurely  in  the  full  strength  of  all  his 
intellectual  powers,  and  that  disease  should  have  so  long 
interfered  with  the  use  of  those  powers  before  his  hour  came, 
only  gave  cause  in  a  less  degree  for  the  same  grief  which 
his  death  more  loudly  calls  for.  But  let  us  now  cease  from 
recollections  of  what  we  have  lost,  whether  by  the  in- 
firmity of  his  years,  or  the  too  soon  completion  of  them, 
to  secure  in  our  breasts,  if  possible,  an  indelible  stamp  of 
the  precious  lesson  of  his  dying  conduct. 

Having  protracted  his  pastoral  labors  until  his  breath 
became  almost  too  short  for  the  purpose  of  continuous  ut- 
terance, he  reluctantly  concluded,  as  he  was  wont  to  say 
to  his  friends,  that  his  work  for  the  church  and  his  God 
was  done,  and  all  that  remained  for  him  now  was  to  pre- 
pare for  his  change.  And  how  seriously  did  he  set  him- 
self to  that  most  momentous  of  all  the  undertakings  that 
mortal  men  are  concerned  with;  choosing  as  the  scene  of 
it,  a  country  retreat,  and  there  amid  the  quiet,  for  which 
he  always  pined,  ordering  his  conversation  and  reading, 
his  prayers  and  meditations,  with  constant  reference  to 
the  great  event — whereby,  while  he  established  his  own 
heart  in  the  faith  of  the  gospel,  the  hope  of  immortality, 
and  confidence  in  the  fullness  of  God's  forgiving  mercy, 
he  became  so  instinct  with  these  divine  themes,  that  with 
the  pen  of  a  ready  writer  he  indited  for  the  edification  of 
mankind  a  treatise  on  each  of  them.     His  favorite  books 

4 


XXXVUl  SERMON. 

now  were  those  of  the  most  spiritual  and  heavenly  strain? 
whereof  the  Saint's  Rest  of  Baxter  was  almost  always 
found  with  the  Bible  upon  the  stand  beside  him.  Of  that 
work  especially  he  would  speak  in  strong  terms  of  com- 
mendation, at  the  same  time  remarking,  "there  is  no 
book  to  be  compared  with  the  Bible,  and  if  I  might  prefer 
one  part  of  that  blessed  book  before  others,  I  would  say,  I 
love  the  Psalms  the  best;  I  can  always  find  in  them  some- 
thing more  expressive  of  my  feelings  than  my  own  lan- 
guage." At  the  last  communion-service  of  the  church 
within  whose  bounds  he  resided,  which  was  but  a  little 
while  before  his  death,  he  took  part  in  the  distribution  of 
the  sacred  symbols,  and  in  a  manner  which  revealed  his 
consciousness  that  he  should  never  so  officiate  again — 
solemn  from  a  sense  of  a  near  eternity  and  with  a  heart 
enlarged  with  the  love  of  Christ  and  the  hope  of  soon  be- 
ing with  him — he  addressed  his  fellow  worshippers  on  the 
great  things  of  their  common  faith,  far  beyond  his  strength. 
His  soul  henceforth  spread  her  wings  for  the  world  of 
rest.  He  said  to  a  friend,  "I  have  a  strange  difficulty, 
and  you  will  perhaps  think  strangely  of  it,  I  am  at  loss 
what  to  pray  for" — and  added,  in  a  most  solemn  tone  and 
with  his  eyes  lifted  to  heaven,  "  God  knows  I  am  willing 
that  whatever  he  pleases  shall  be  done."  His  triumph  too 
over  the  fear  of  death  was  complete.  "  I  have,"  said  he, 
"been  looking  the  case  between  God  and  myself,  over 
and  over  and  over  again;  and  though  I  see  enough  to  jus- 
tify God  in  casting  me  off  a  thousand  times  and  more,  my 
conviction  of  my  interest  in  Christ  is  so  firm,  that  I  can- 
not make  myself  afraid;  the  only  thing  I  fear  is,  that  I 
have  not  fears  enough."  He  remarked  on  the  last  Sab- 
bath evening  of  his  life,  "I  am  almost  home,  and  I  thank 
God  that  I  am— -I  went  astray  from  him,  but  in  his  rich 
mercy  he  brought  me  back.     I  am  unworthy  of  the  least 


SERMON.  XXXIX 

of  his  mercies,  and  if  I  may  lie  down  beside  his  footstool, 
or  if  he  will  even  put  me  under  it — I  will  take  the  very 
lowest  place  in  heaven."  He  needed  some  refreshment, 
and  when  the  cup  was  handed  to  him,  he  took  it  and  said, 
"O  God  bless  this  cup — I  think  I  have  a  covenant  right 
to  it."  A  few  hours  before  he  died,  he  asked  a  brother 
in  the  ministry  to  pray  for  him,  and  specified  this  peti- 
tion, "Pray  that  God  will  do  with  me  just  as  he  pleases." 
Mark  the  perfect  man,  and  behold  the  upright;  for  the  end 
of  that  man  is  peace!  We  mourn  for  him,  but  not  on  his 
own  behalf.  Such  a  life,  and  such  a  death,  to  those  who 
believe  the  Scriptures,  are  equivalent  to  an  assurance  from 
heaven,  that  he  now  shares  the  beatitude  of  that  holy 
world.  We  sorrow  that  he  has  left  us,  but  not  as  those 
who  have  no  hope.  "For  if  we  believe  that  Jesus  died 
and  rose  again,  even  so  them  also  who  sleep  in  Jesus  will 
God  bring  with  him.  For  this  we  say  unto  you,  by  the 
word  of  the  Lord,  that  we  who  are  alive  and  remain  to  the 
coming  of  the  Lord,  shall  not  prevent  them  who  are  asleep: 
For  the  Lord  himself  shall  descend  from  heaven  with  a 
shout,  with  the  voice  of  the  arch-angel,  and  with  the 
trump  of  God;  and  the  dead  in  Christ  shall  rise  first. 
Then  we  who  are  alive  and  remain,  shall  be  caught  up 
together  with  them  in  the  clouds  to  meet  the  Lord  in  the 
air,  and  so  shall  we  be  ever  with  the  Lord." 


PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 


CHRISTIAN  CHURCHES, 


FROM     THE     EARLIEST     TESTIMONY     OF    FACTS  ;     IN    THE    ORIGINAL 
"WORDS    OF    THE    ANCIENT    "WHITINGS,    AND    ESTAB- 
LISHED   ET    THE    SACRED    RECORDS. 


SECTION   I. 

The  ordinances  and  officers  of  the  Gospel  neither  conventional,  nor  subsequent 
to  inspiration- — Presbyter  meant  not  different  offices;  but  presbyter  and  bishop 
the  same  commission — The  fathers  credible  for  facts,  their  opinions  unim- 
portant, their  silence  presumptive  proof — Barnabas  and  Hermas  rejected. 
The  testimony  of  Clement  of  Rome  weighed. 

Forms  of  civil  government  are  conventional,  except 
where  the  social  compact  has  been  excluded  by  the 
dictation  of  power,  or  perverted  by  the  stratagems  of 
fraud.  But  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  laws,  ordinances, 
and  offices  are  all  prescribed  and  adjusted  with  pre- 
cision; innovation  is  disobedience;  an  unauthorised 
office  is  insubordination  and  rebellion.  The  commis- 
sion and  duties  of  the  gospel-herald  are  spread  upon 
the  same  pages  of  that  word  which  he  is  to  preach  ; 
that  he  may  know  his  own  obligations,  and  the  people, 
how  he  is  to  be  regarded.  Offices  erected  in  the 
church,  after  the  removal  of  inspired  men,  are  unlaw- 
ful, whether  in  ancient  or  modern  times.     If  such 

B 


2  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

offices  can  be  justified  on  the  conjectural  ground  of 
convenience,  so  may  ordinances,  and  we  may  "  teach 
for  doctrines  the  commandments  of  men."  Unity  of 
design  and  operation,  and  especially  the  prevention  of 
sinful  competitions  and  disorder,  justified  presbyteries, 
in  determining  that  one  of  their  number  should  pre- 
side in  their  sessions,  and  in  public  worship.  But  for 
the  ordination  of  a  presbyter,  or  the  ordination  of  any 
as  lay  presbyters,  without  apostolical  precept  or  ex- 
ample, neither  right  nor  power  existed ;  and  every 
such  unscriptural  office  was  and  is  merely  Void. 

That  no  such  commission  under  that  dispensation 
whereof  Christ  was  a  minister,  belongs  to  gospel 
times,  will  be  conceded  by  those  for  whom  I  write ; 
and  that  the  commissions  of  apostle  and  evangelist, 
given  by  him  after  his  resurrection,  for  the  planting 
of  the  churches,  being  obviously  temporary,  have  ex- 
pired, may  be  at  present  also  assumed.  Our  purpose 
is  to  show  from  facts,  what  permanent  offices  at  first 
existed  in  every  regularly  constituted  church ;  that  we 
may  ascertain  whether  the  term  presbyter,  rtpsafivlspos, 
was,  among  the  first  Christians,  understood  to  desig- 
nate two  offices,  a  preaching  and  ruling  elder,  or  one 
only, — whether  the  epithet  ruling,  Ttpotolus,  was  so  far 
from  importing  subordination,  that  it  was  adopted  to 
signify  a  presiding  authority, — and  whether  becoming 
permanent  at  the  close  of  the  second  century,  this 
office,  founded  on  mere  expediency,  was  more  usually 
expressed  by  the  word  sjtiaxoHog,  bishop,  common  be- 
fore that  period  to  all  elders.  If  these  things  shall  be 
made  clear,  the  assumption  of  the  existence  of  two 
offices,  couched  under  the  same  term,  and  constituted 
by  ordination,  but  deemed  to  be  distinct  merely  be- 
cause presbyters  exercised  a  diversity  of  duties  in 
their  episcopal  character."  will  be  evinced  to  be  mere- 
ly gratuitous  and  unsupported. 

Although  the  opinions  and  practice  of  the  fathers 

a  Phil,  i,  1.    Acts  xx.  17— 28.     Heb.  xiii.  17.     IPet.  v.  1. 


OF     CHR1STIAX     CHURCHES.  3 

can  have  not  the  least  authority  to  establish  any  office 
or  doctrine,  any  prerogative  or  duty,  not  taught  or 
exemplified  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  yet  their  under- 
standing of  the  Scriptures,  without  superseding  the 
duty  of  thinking  for  ourselves,  is  entitled  to  our  re- 
spectful attention;  and  their  testimony,  where  unper- 
verted,  may  prove  that  an  office  or  order  was  in  use 
in  their  times;  or  their  silence  may,  under  circum- 
stances, establish,  as  far  as  a  negative  is  capable  of 
proof,  that  none  such  was  then  in  existence.     Where 
the  genuine  work  of  a  pious  father  represents  a  doc- 
trine, 01   an  office  to  have  been  common,  when  he 
wrote,  his  lestimony  is  credible,  that  the  thing,  which 
he  asserts,  was  at  least  the  fact  as  far  as  he  knew. 
But  if  the  opinion  of  such  father,  or  the  piactice  of 
the  church  in  his  day,  must  be  admitted  as  authora- 
tively  obligatory,  though  not  founded  on  the  word  of 
God,  then  indulgences  can  remove  sin,  and  a  wafer 
become  the  body  of  Christ !     The  utility  of  their  testi- 
mony is  compatible  with  the   admission  that  most  of 
the  Christian  fathers,  of  whose  writings  we  have  any 
more  than  fragments,  have  left  melancholy  proofs  of 
weakness  and  error ;  the  conflicting  opinions  also  of 
councils,  equally  disprove  their  infallibility. 

The  meaning  of  a  law  is  often  discoverable  from 
the  first  practice,  which  obtained  under  it.  If  the 
ruling  elders,  of  which  some  modern  divines  have 
dreamed,  were  a  grade  of  officers  in  every  church, 
between  preachers  and  deacons,  such  fact  ought  to 
appear  in  the  early  uninspired  Christian  writers.  If 
it  should  not  be  discovered  upon  a  fair  investigation, 
the  silence  of  antiquity  will  be  conclusive  against  the 
existence  of  such  an  office.  Those  who  inveigh 
against  clerical  aggrandizement,  as  a  modern  substi- 
tute for  original  simplicity,  and  denounce  episcopal 
power  as  an  unscriptural  invasion  of  the  privileges  of 
the  pastoral  office,  ought  never  to  plead  expediency, 
when  they  degrade  the  presbyterial,  which  is  the  only 
episcopal  order,  by  reducing  presbyters  to  the  stand- 


4  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

ing  of  deacons.     The  present  appeal  shall  be  to  facts 
supported  by  undeniable  testimony. 

The  ancient  miserable  production,  by  many  ascribed 
to  Barnabas,  but  deemed  spurious  by  Eusebius,  has 
not  touched  our  subject.  "The  Pastor,"  supposed  to 
have  been  written  by  Hermas,  whom  Paul  mentions, 
was  certainly  not  earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  A  translation  only  has  survived ;  from  this 
the  non-existence  of  the  intermediate  order  might  be 
easily  argued;  but  our  proofs  shall  be  drawn  only 
from  books  of  indisputable  genuineness. 

The  excellent  Clement,  whose  name  Paul  pronounc- 
ed to  be  in  the  book  of  life,  is  by  the  voice  of  anti- 
quity the  author  of  a  letter,  which  is  the  most,  if  not 
the  only  credible  uninspired  Christian  production  of 
the  first  century.  Its  caption  purports  a  letter  from 
the  church  at  Rome  to  the  church  at  Corinth;  the 
contents  are  a  persuasive  and  pious  address,  well  de- 
signed to  produce  submission  to  the  government  of 
their  elders,  whom  they  had  rejected.  There  is  not  a 
hint  in  the  letter,  either  of  an  individual  bishop,  or  of 
subordinate  presbyters  at  Rome,  Corinth,  or  else- 
where. Had  there  existed  a  superior  officer  at  Co- 
rinth, this  letter  in  defence  of  the  presbyters  must 
have  recognized  his  authority;  had  there  been  lay 
elders,  the  total  silence  of  the  letter  on  that  point  is 
wholly  unaccountable. 

That  the  elders,  mentioned  in  this  epistle,  are  of  the 
same  order,  appears  continually :  "  Let  the  flock  of 
Christ  enjoy  peace,  with  its  elders,  7tpssj3vlipuv,  appointed 
over  it:"b  It  is  a  shame  that  "  the  church  of  the  Co- 
rinthians, on  account  of  one  or  two  individuals,  should 
rise  against  their  elders,  rtpssfivlepovs  :"c  "  Our  apostles 
knew  from  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  contention 
would  arise  about  the  honor  of  the  oversight,  irtiaxoftyf. 
On  this  account,  having  perfect  foreknowledge,  they 
constituted  those  before  mentioned;  and  they  appoint- 

t>  Chap.  54.  c  Chap.  47. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  5 

cd  in  succession,  that  when  they  should  die,  other  ap- 
proved men  should  accept  that  sacred  office.  That 
those  should  be  ejected  from  their  public  ministrations, 
who  were  ordained  by  them,  or  afterwards  by  other 
excellent  men  with  the  consent  of  the  whole  church, 
and  who  have  ministered  blamelessly  to  the  flock  of 
Christ  with  humility,  peacefulness,  and  intelligence, 
and  with  universal  approbation  for  a  long  time,  we 
think  to  be  unjust.  For  it  would  be  a  great  sin  in  us, 
if  we  should  cast  off  those  who  have  performed  the 
functions  of  the  episcopate,  sfnaxoftr^,  blamelessly  and 
holily.  Blessed  are  those  elders,  Tt^afivl^oi,  who  have 
finished  their  course,  who  have  obtained  their  com- 
plete and  happy  discharge,  for  they  have  no  fears,  lest 
any  shall  remove  them  from  the  place  assigned  as  a 
mansion  to  them."d  These  elders  held  the  episcopate ; 
were  the  bishops,  presbyters,  or  leaderse  of  that 
church ;  were  in  every  instance  named  in  the  plural, 
and,  beyond  all  question,  ranked  in  the  highest  order 
of  the  ordinary  officers  of  a  Christian  church. 

The  original  organization  of  churches  is  particularly 
shown/  The  apostles,  "preaching  through  regions 
and  cities,  xapu$  »<*'  rto%eif,  set  apart  their  first  fruits, 
having  proved  them  by  the  Spirit,  to  be  bishops  and 
deacons  m$  iftt,axoHov$  xcu  Siaxovovf  of  those  who  should 
believe."  Had  the  word  presbyters  been  here  substi- 
tuted for  bishops,  lay-elders  might  have  been  alleged 
to  have  been  comprehended ;  but  the  word  is  not  here 
generic ;  nor  can  it  be  appellatively  taken.  The  word 
set-apart,  xo.9sa1a.vov,  fixes  upon  it  an  official  sense.  Also 
the  expression  *a7a  x<*?<*s  xo.v  rtoxcig  evince  that  the  pres- 
byters in  the  region  of  country,  and  in  the  cities,  the 
chorepiscopi  and  episcopi;  were  at  the  first  of  one 
grade,  and  the  individuals  of  equal  authority.  The 
supposition  that  either  a  superior,  or  an  intermediate 
grade  of  officers,  is  omitted  in  this  enumeration,  is  not 

d  Chap.  44. 

e  Chap.  1.  "vTrilcto-iro/xivot   roit   nyou/mtyotc  v/u.a>v." 

f  Chap.  42. 

B2 


6  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

merely  to  charge  the  writer  with  a  careless  inattention 
to  an  important  fact,  but  to  impeach  his  veracity ;  for 
if  the  first  converts,  were  set  apart  to  three  orders, 
they  were  not  to  two,  for  a  portion  of  them  constituted 
a  third.  That  his  language  was  designedly  exclusive, 
appears  also  from  his  justification  of  this  apostolical 
two-fold  distribution,  by  a  passage  in  Isaiah ;  "  I  will 
constitute  their  bishops  in  righteousness,  and  their 
deacons  in  faith."ff  Thus  does  this  letter  positively 
affirm  to  the  church  at  Corinth,  that  their  presbyters, 
whose  government  they  had  renounced,  were  all 
bishops,  srtitfxortou?,  both  by  apostolic  ordination,  and 
prophetic  authority.  Should  any  allege,  that  this 
prophecy  was  misunderstood,  our  argument  is  still 
safe,  because  the  opinion  of  the  writer  is  clear,  and 
he  must  have  given  the  officers  of  a  Christian  church, 
as  they  then  existed.  Thus  nothing  can  be  more  evi- 
dent than  that  this  letter,  which,  above  all  other  unin- 
spired productions,  is  of  the  highest  authority,  and  at 
the  earliest  period,  being  prior  to  the  Revelation  of 
John,  does  use  rtptofivlspof  and  S7ti,oxo7tog  for  the  same 
order  and  office,  and  allows  them  but  one  ordination 
only ;  and,  as  it  is  in  the  face  of  those  lordly  powers, 
which  bishops  afterwards  claimed,  jure  divino,  over 
presbyters ;  so  it  is  a  standing  and  perpetual  testimo- 
ny against  those,  who  would  degrade  the  office  of  the 
presbyter,  to  the  mute  ministrations  of  a  modern  ruling 
elder ;  which  is  but  another  name  for  a  deacon,  and 
in  a  large  proportion  of  the  American  Presbyterian 
churches,  (whose  opinion  on  this  point  has  been  pro- 
tected by  all  their  successive  forms  of  government, — 
his  ordination,  charge,  authority,  and  duties  being  the 
same,)  no-  other  deacon  exists. 

£  Isaiah  lx.  17.     nips  he  renders  utis-hottou;,  and  d^B'JJ  fianovous. 


SECTION    II. 

The  testimony  of  the  Scriptures  being  postponed,  till  the  facts  and  primitive 
usage  of  the  churches  have  been  shown;  the  letter  of  Polycarp  is  examined. 
— According  to  Clement  and  Polycarp,  at  Rome,  Corinth,  Smyrna,  and  Phi- 
lippi,  no  officer  ivas  superior  to  the  presbyter,  and  no  presbyter  a  layman. — 
Papias  accords  with  the  same  representation,  that  a  presbyter,  appcllatively 
an  elder,  was  the  only  ordinary  teacher,  and  without  a  superior. 

After  the  credible  uninspired  evidence  of  the  first 
century,  the  testimonies  of  the  second,  may  be  con- 
densed into  three  periods.  In  the  first  period  are  dis- 
covered, except  forgeries,  but  two  witnesses,  Polycarp 
and  Papias. 

The  venerable  "apostolical  presbyter"  Polycarp, 
whose  letter  is  common,  derived  his  first  religious 
knowledge  from  the  apostles:  and  was  "in  the  church 
at  Smyrna,"  probably,  the  presiding  aposaluf,  presbyter, 
"bishop,"  or  angel.a  This  epistle,  unquestionably 
genuine,  was  written  to  the  church  at  Philippi,  near 
the  commencement  of  the  second  century,  we  suppose 
about  A.  D.  116,  and  more  than  fifty  years  before  his 
martyrdom.  Read  publicly  in  the  churches  in  Asia, 
so  late  as  the  fourth  century ,b  it  was  too  generally 
known,  to  be  removed,  or  successfully  interpolated; 
its  simplicity  too  undisguised  and  evangelical,  to  en- 
courage imitation. 

A  single  letter  from  each  of  those  apostolical  men, 
Clement  and  Polycarp  has  rescued  their  testimonies 
from  the  frauds  of  designing  ecclesiastics.  The  for- 
mer was  saved  by  a  single  copy.  Had  a  genuine  let- 
ter of  the  pious  Ignatius,  in  like  manner  escaped,  it 
would  have  confounded  those  Arian  and  Athanasian 

a  "ttTar'loKiy.o;  Trpitrfiulep©'-'''' — "a<nro   ctrnrcrloxaiv    ja*8»Tiy9-««.,> 
—  "it  tii  ~S.fj.vgvH  iKK\n<Tia,  i7rKrx.67r®' .''     Irenaeus, 
b "usque  hodie."     Hieronym. 


8  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

productions,  too  credulously  ascribed  to  him,  and  which 
are  the  corner-stone  of  that  system,  which  partaking 
of  the  Jewish  and  Pagan  hierarchies,  is  equally  hostile 
both  to  the  rights  of  God  and  man. 

This  precious  relic  of  ancient  times  begins,  in  a  man- 
ner altogether  becoming  the  character  of  its  excellent 
and  pious  author;  "Polycarp  and  the  presbyters  with 
him,  to  the  church  of  God  dwelling  at  Philippi,  mercy 
to  you,  and  peace  be  multiplied  from  God  Almighty, 
and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour."0  The 
omission  of  his  official  name,  has  been  made  an  argu- 
ment of  superiority.  He  was  neither  an  apostle,  nor  an 
evangelist.  In  a  particular  church,  no  office  more 
elevated  than  that  of  a  presbyter,  has  yet  appeared. 
His  silence,  though  precisely  that,  which  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  saint,  had  he  been  even  Patriarch  or 
Archbishop,  names  then  unknown  in  the  Christian 
church,  can  never  establish  the  existence  of  a  non-en- 
tity. Neither  the  title  angel  nor  apotalu?,  if  such  he 
was,  which  is  probable,  nor  any  consequent  duty  or 
honor,  rendered  him  more  than  a  presbyter.  Not -a 
word  have  we  yet  found,  nor  shall  we  in  this  letter  dis- 
cover any  thing,  that  bears  even  a  semblance  of  a 
proof  of  any  diversity  of  grade,  in  the  ordinary  preach- 
ing office,  the  possessor  of  which  as  yet,  was  indiscri- 
minately denominated  presbyter  and  bishop.  The 
aw  avtul  rtpssfivl  spot,,  presbyters  with  him,m&y  import  equal- 
ity, or  locality;  but  it  seems  rather  to  denote  a  union, 
in  design  and  action.  If  it  be  asked,  why  then  was  his 
name  expressed?  Because  he  wrote  the  letter,  which  is 
throughout  in  the  first  person  singular.  Thus  Paul 
and  Timotheus  are  joined  in  the  introduction  of  the 
inspired  letter  to  the  same  church;  but  the  third  verse 
is  in  the  first  person  singular,  and  the  letter  was  Paul's 
This  introduction  can  neither  prove  parity,  nor  dispa- 
rity, in  the  office  of  Polycarp  and  the  presbyters  with 
him;  yet  it  is  not  improbable,  that  his  grace,  talents,  cha- 

c  noxuKag7rog   x.etl   a  o-vv    zvrat   Tr^io-Cvregoi,   t»   vuixmrnt  ts  ©is 
tj  <nr«go;xovcrii  ^ikittttoh  x..  t.  \. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  9 

racter,  seniority  in  office,  and  even  their  personal  know- 
ledge of  him,  may  have  conduced,  with  the  fact  that 
he  composed  the  letter,  to  his  naming  himself  in  it  to  the 
Philippians.  If  Polycarp  was  the  only  elder,  "who  la- 
boured in  word  and  doctrine,"  and  the  other  presby- 
ters were  laymen,  ordained  in  the  same,  and  that  the 
only  mode,  to  govern  and  rule;  why  were  the  deacons 
omitted?  That  such  there  were,  appears  from  the  let- 
ter itself.  This  omission  of  deacons  and  association 
of  Polycarp  with  presbyters,  is  at  least  a  probable 
foundation  for  the  supposition  that  he  was  himself  a 
presbyter,  a  name  expressly  given  him  in  the  writings 
of  Irenaeus  who  remembered  him,  but  whose  account 
of  him,  being  later  testimony,  must  be  left  for  future 
examination.  This  probability  corroborated  by  the 
circumstance  that  no  ordinary  preaching  officer  ex- 
cept the  presbyter  has  appeared  in  any  testimony  prior 
to  this  period,  is  all  that  can  reasonably  be  expected  on 
the  point.  As  every  presbyter  was  hitherto  a  bishop, 
if  any  were  laymen,  they  were  of  course,  lay-bishops. 
If  Polycarp  was  as  we  have  supposed  a  cpotalag,  or 
presiding-  bishop,  he  had  the  only  preaching  office,  and 
the  highest  standing  then  known  in  the  church;  unless 
any  of  the  Evangelists  yet  survived,  of  which  we  know 
not  any  testimony.  If  he  was  the  angel  of  the  church 
of  Smyrna,  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse,  as  some 
imagine  he  was,  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  he  was  of 
the  same  grade  with  the  angels  in  the  other  Asiatic 
churches,  who  were  consequently  not  superior  to  that 
of  the  presbyter  or  bishop;  but  if  angel  was  a  higher 
office,  it  was  a  wandering  star,  that  has  come  and  gone 
without  leaving  a  trace  behind.  Every  talent  must 
render  its  account,  and  the  personal  influence  of  every 
<spof<j7co$',  presiding  elder,  or  bishop  carried  with  it,  its 
own  responsibleness.  Neither  Clement,  nor  Polycarp 
has  recognised,  either  a  superior  authority,  or  an  as- 
signment of  duty  more  arduous,  in  any  one  presbyter 
of  a  church,  than  in  another.  The  latter  mentions 
only  presbyters  and  deacons  at  Philippi;  Paul  directs 


10  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

only  to  bishops  and  deacons  there.d  Each  naming 
two  orders  only,  if  Paul  omitted  presbyters  and  Poly- 
carp  bishops,  the  defect  is  equally  unaccountable;  but 
if  they  respectively  wrote  to  the  same  class,  by  those 
different  names,  they  were  both  consistent  with  the 
constant  usage  of  those  days;  and  the  conclusion  is 
inevitable,  that  at  neither  period  were  they  laymen. 
The  advice  of  Polycarp  to  the  church  at  Philippi  to  be 
subject  to  the  presbyters  and  deacons,e  would  have 
been  a  misdirection,  if  the  bishops  to  whom  Paul  wrote 
were  different  persons,  and  then  surviving.  That  some 
of  them  remained  is  probable,  because  Polycarp,  as  ap- 
pears by  this  letter,  was  living  at  both  periods,  and 
survived  the  latter,  we  presume  forty  or  fifty  years. 
If  the  terms  presbyter  and  bishop  were  promiscuously 
used  to  denote  the  same  office,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century,  which  is  satisfactorily  clear;  such  was 
that  of  Polycarp;  and  if  those  presbyters  were  lay- 
men, it  is  evinced,  contrary  to  all  belief,  that  he  was 
no  other.  But  hitherto  for  the  existence  of  a  lay  pres- 
byter, we  have  found  not  a  word,  sentiment,  or  impli- 
cation. His  profession  of  sorrow  on  account  of  Va- 
lens,  who  had  been  "made  a  presbyter"  with  them  at 
some  period/  and  afterwards  lapsed  into  error,  de- 
termines the  word  presbyter  to  its  official,  not  an  ap- 
pellative meaning.  The  admission  of  the  judicial  au- 
thority of  those  presbyters  over  their  co-presbyter 
Valens,  is  not  merely  a  renunciation  of  authority  in 
the  writer,  but  a  proof,  that  the  cognizance  of  the 

d  Philipp.  Ch.  i.  v.  1. 

e  — — ilv7roTaa-<ra.fjLivovQ  to«  rsr^io-0u1igot;  km  Jio.ic.ovoi;. 

f  Three  paragraphs  are  here  supplied  by  the  Latin  translation, 
"Nimis  contristatus  sum  pro  Valente  qui  presbyter  factus  est  ali- 
quando  apud  vos,  quod  sic  ignoret  is  locum,  qui  datus  est  ei,"  &c. 
How  and  by  whom  he  had  been  made  a  presbyter  is  not  shown. 
But  factus  est  implies  a  passiveness  on  his  part.  He  was  probably 
made  a  presbyter  by  imposition  of  hands,  [y«goflio-ia]  and  the  office 
having-  been  given  \_datus~]  to  him,  [apud]  with  the  Philippians,  it 
was,  we  suppose  by  election  [^/goToy/*.]  An  argument,  neverthe- 
less, must  not  be  founded  upon  the  uncertain  basis  of  a  translation. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  11 

cause  lay  not  in  their  epoealug,  presiding  presbyter,  if 
they  had  one.  There  is  a  mischievous  tendency  to 
personal  conflicts  and  confusion,  implied  in  the  suppo- 
sition, that  one  presbyter  should  be  amenable  to  ano- 
ther as  an  individual  officer  in  equal  degree.  The  pe- 
tition that  he  should  not  be  treated  as  an  enemy,  is  ad- 
dressed to  the  presbyters  as  such;  the  power  of  the 
presbyters  in  council,  or  presbytery  is  therefore  in  this 
instance  plainly  implied.  But  if  every  member  of  the 
church  at  Philippi,  should  be  understood  to  have  been 
thus  advised  with  respect  to  Valens,  then  the  congre- 
gation, as  such,  was  supposed  to  possess  the  power  of 
censure  and  restoration.  By  neither  interpretation  is 
there  the  least  possible  ground,  to  imagine  a  disparity 
among  presbyters,  by  a  diversity  of  order,  or  a  differ- 
ence of  ordinations. 

Clement  and  Polycarp,  were  co-temporaries  and 
survivors  of  the  apostles;  their  representations  are  en- 
titled to  the  highest  credit,  and  deserve  to  be  received, 
as  unprejudiced  exhibitions  of  apostolical  practice, 
prior  to  the  corruptions  introduced  by  clerical  ambi- 
tion. Successors  of,  but  not  apostles;  presbyters  in 
confessed  parity  with  their  co-presbyters;  exalted  only 
by  superior  knowledge,  grace,  talents,  usefulness,  and 
humility;  they  must,  we  suppose,  have  presided  in  the 
churches  at  Rome  and  Smyrna, but  merely  as  Gposclots;* 
for  other  precedence  in  the  officers  of  a  church,  does 
not  as  yet  appear.  Among  presbyters,  they  have  in- 
timated no  diversity  of  order,  degree,  ordination,  or 
power.  Every  presbyter  was,  by  his  commission, 
equally  set  over  and  bound  to  feed  and  govern  the 
flock.s  Their  authority  was  from  the  word  of  God. 
The  apostles  could  transfer  none  from  themselves; 
they  delegated  no  power;  as  servants  of  Christ  they 
selected  those,  who  appeared  to  be  best  qualified  to  ex- 
ercise the  offices  necessary  in  a  church.     By  imposing 

S  TrgourlxfAtvos,  1  Thess.  v.  12.  <nroi/u.uivuv — iv  Z  (<nr«/ittv/a>)  v,ua( 
to  GrvtvfAu.  to  ayuv  =3-=7o  sTr/rxowx?.  Ac. xx. 17,  28. — nyovutv.t.  Heb. 
xii.  7. 


12  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

their  hands,  no  virtue  proceeded  from  them;  they  pray- 
ed, that  his  spirit  might  rest  upon  the  person,  and  gave 
in  charge  to  the  people  the  relation  they  should  stand 
in  to  him,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  confirmed  by  his  gifts, 
the  office  thus  derived  from  the  head  of  the  church. 
The  ordainer  could  neither  enlarge,  nor  abridge  the 
power  incident  to  the  office.     Whatever  misconstruc- 
tions of  the  presbyterial  office,  have  obtained ;   it  is, 
and  always  will  be,  the  highest  ordinary  office  in  a 
Christian  church;  and  no  presbyter,  who  is  officially 
such,  can  be  less  than  a  bishop  and  authorised  to  in- 
struct, govern,  administer  ordinances,  and  ordain,  at 
least,  conjunctly  with  his  co-presbyters  of  the   same 
presbytery,  or  council.  Not  a  single  word,  fact,  or  even 
circumstance  has  occurred  in  the  testimony,  prior  to 
the  year  one  hundred  and  sixteen,  adverse  to  these  po- 
sitions.    From  all  that  can  be  collected  from  the  letter 
of  Polycarp,  and  also  from  that  of  Clement,  there  exist- 
ed not  at  Rome,  Corinth,  Smyrna,  Philippi  or  elsewhere, 
any  office  superior  to  that  of  presbyter,  nor  a  presbyter 
inferior  to  the  clerical  office.     No  canonical,  or  re-or- 
dination is  heard  of  till  long  after  this  period.     Thus 
far  not  a  tittle  of  proof  has  appeared  to  justify  either 
the  opinion  of  those,  who  would  elevate  the  ■xpoeoldlsg, 
ruling  elders,   to    a  superior  order;  or  of  those,  who 
would  depress  them  to  a  grade  inferior  to  that  of  the 
elders  who  laboured  in  woi'd  and  doctrine.     The  practice 
of  the   four  churches,   concerned  in  the  two  letters 
mentioned,  may  be  supposed  to  have  afforded  at  that 
time,  a  fair  sample  of  all  others.     What  errors  sprang 
up   in  the  Christian  societies  after  the  period  of  this 
letter,  and  within  the  protracted  life  of  this  holy  man, 
in  relation  to  officers  and  government,  must  be  defer- 
red  at   present.       The  successful   discrimination  of 
changes  forbids  all  anticipations,  except  what  are  in 
support  of  the  genuineness  and  credibility  of  the  evi- 
dence adduced.  The  account  given  of  Polycarp  by  his 
church,  if  credible,  is  therefore  of  future  consideration; 
and  the  testimonies  of  him  by  Irenceus,  though  deemed 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  13 

a  cotemporary,  are  at  the  distance  of  almost  a  cen- 
tury from  the  time,  towards  which  our  inquiries  have 
been  directed,  and  may  peitiaps  appear,  when  exam- 
ined, somewhat  accommodated  to  later  views  and  cir- 
cumstances. 

Papias,  who  flourished  about  the  period  of  Polycarp's 
letter,  has  been  called  his  companion;  but  resided  at 
Hierapolis.1*  He  wrote  several  books,  which  have 
perished:  except  a  fragment,  which  maybe  translated 
thus:  "  I  shall  esteem  it  no  labour  to  set  in  order  be- 
fore you,  the  things  I  have  rightly  learned  from  the 
elders,  («apa  *<ov  xptofivltpuv,)  and  well  remember,  and 
shall  confirm  their  truth  by  my  explanations.  For  I 
am  not,  like  the  most,  pleased  with  those,  who  say 
many  things,  but  with  such  as  teach  the  truth:  nor  with 
persons,  who  relate  injunctions,  which  are  unusual; 
but  with  such  as  speak  those  things,  which  were  by 
the  Lord  delivered  to  faith,  and  which  proceed  from 
the  truth  itself.  If,  on  any  occasion,  some  one  came 
who  had  been  a  companion  with  those  of  former 
times,  (•ssgiGjSv7f£oi,$,)  I  inquired  lor  the  words  of  the  el- 
ders (*£ia<5v!i£u>v;)  what  Andrew  and  what  Peter  might 
have  said,  or  what  Philip  or  what  Thomas  or  James; 
or  what  John  or  Matthew,  or  what  any  other  of  the 
disciples,  /xaerjl^v  of  the  Lord;  and  what  things  Aris- 
tion,  and  John  the  presbyter  (npsajSvlfpo^)  and  the  dis- 
ciples (pascal,, )  of  the  Lord  are  teaching  (teyovai). 
For  the  things  which  I  received  from  books,  did  not  so 
much  profit  me,  as  those  from  a  voice  living  and  pre- 
sent."1 

Irenaeus  says,  he  was  a  hearer,  (axovalrj^,)  of  John 
the  apostle  :  which  appears  doubtful  from  the  frag- 
ment. Nicephorus  accounts  him  to  have  lived  an 
apostolic  life.  Eusebius  deemed  him  a  man  of  cre- 
dulity, but  of  veracit}-;  he  has  not  only  given  the  above 
quotation,  but  confirmed  it,  by  asserting  the  existence, 
in  his  day,  of  two  monuments  at  Ephesus,  of  John  the 

b  Col.  iv.  13. 

•    Euseb.  lib.  iii.  c.  S9.  Nicephor.  lib.  iil.  c.  20. 

c 


14  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

apostle  and  John  the  presbyter.  He  styles  him  the 
bishop  of  Hierapolis,  sv  iipartofot, — irtiaxofto;.k  The  title 
of  bishop  given  to  men  of  the  first  and  second  centu- 
ries, by  those  of  later  times,  is  no  argument  of  clerical 
disparity  at  the  former  period,  when  the  word  bore  a 
different  sense.  This  sophism  is  often  played  off,  by 
presenting  catalogues  of  ancient  bishops  made  for  a 
different  purpose;  its  seeming  force  springing  wholly 
from  modern  associations.  That  Papias  was  a  bishop 
in  the  sense  of  Eusebius  and  Nicephorus  is  destitute 
of  proof;  he  has  discovered  no  regard  to  clerical  ti- 
tles, desirous  only  of  the  truth,  and  with  a  simplicity 
almost  peculiar'  to  the  days  of  primitive  purity,  he  de- 
nominates the  apostles  themselvesbut  seniors  «p£cj3u7fpot, 
in  the  gospel.  That  this  word  was  intended  by  him 
appellatively  and  that  the  apostles  were  consequently 
named  without  a  title,  appears  from  his  attributing 
c*p£(j|3t;7fpos'  to  the  younger  John  in  its  official  sense  to 
distinguish  him  from  the  beloved  disciple.  Eusebius, 
enforcing  the  same  discrimination,  denominates  the 
apostle  an  evangelist  tva^ytxiat^ ,  the  younger  John  a 
presbyter;  the  one  being  a  preacher  unto  the  world, 
the  other  a  presbyter  of  a  particular  church,  not  a 
layman,  for  he  was  a  teacher  of  Papias  whom  Euse- 
bius styles  bishop  of  Hierapolis. 

Thus  does  it  appear,  that  apostle,  evangelist,  presby- 
ter, and  for  the  same  reason,  bishop,  were  anciently 
used  according  to  the  forces  of  the  terms,  and  also 
predicated  respectively  in  their  official  senses.  John 
was  an  apostle  by  commission,  in  his  labours  an  evan- 
gelist, and  an  elder  by  age.  The  younger  John  was 
an  elder,  not,  at  least  comparatively,  in  age,  but  by 
office.  James  was  an  apostle  by  his  commission,  ap- 
pellatively an  elder  and  bishop;  it  being  expedient, 
that  he  should  maintain  a  continued  oversight  in  the 
church  at  Jerusalem.  Timothy  was  by  office  an  evan- 
gelist, yet  was  occupied  for  a  time  in  the  oversight  of 
the  church  at  Ephcsus.      Every  officer  in  advanced 

!c   Valesius,  the  annotitor,  supposes  this  to  be  an  interpolation. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  15 

age  was  an  elder;  and  every  one,  but  the  deacon,  was 
a  bishop.  In  the  fragment  of  Papias,  nothing  appears 
contrary  to  the  simplicity  of  the  Scriptures;  but  what- 
ever can  be  elicited  from  it,  accords  with  the  condition 
of  the  primitive  churches  in  the  first  part  of  the  se- 
cond century.  Clement  in  the  first  has  decided  in  lan- 
guage, affirmative  and  exclusive,  for  two  offices  in  a  par- 
ticular church;  according  to  Polycarp  and  Papias,  who 
are  the  only  witnesses  known  to  us,  in  the  first  part  of 
the  second  century,  the  offices  were  the  same.  Every 
thing,  therefore,  hitherto,  exhibits  the  office  of  elder, 
in  a  particular  church,  as  the  only  ordinary  teacher^ 
equally  without  superiority  and  inferiority. 


SECTION   III. 

The  representations  of  Justin  Martyr  not  only  respectable  for  his  learning  and 
character,  but  disinterested. — The  ruling  elder  7rpot</1m$  blesses  the  eucha- 
ristic  elements,  and  the  deacons  carry  them  to  the  communicants. — This 
testimony  is  that  of  a  martyr,  given  to  the  emperor,  in  behalf  of  Christendom, 
and  renewed  in  a  second  apology. — The  7Tfioialce<r  among  the  Ephori  held 
the  same  grade,  as  the  rest. — The  letter  of  the  church  of  Smyrna. — The 
fragments  of  Hegesippus. — The  7rpoa/]a>c  or  primus  presbyter,  was  at  an 
early  period  distinguished  by  the  name  t7rt(TK07roe  at  first  common  to  all 
presbyters. 

Dm  there  exist  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
more  than  two  kinds  of  officers  1  or  were  elders  then 
of  different  kinds?  These  must  be  our  inquiries  in 
this  section.  Polycarp  was  now  in  extreme  old  age ; 
Irenseus,  a  youth  ;  Athenagoras,  Mclito,  and  Theophi- 
lus  of  Antioch,  commencing  public  life;  and  Justin 
Martyr,  a  Gentile,  but  Christian  philosopher,  standing 
but  to  fall  in  the  front  of  the  battle.  He,  our  almost 
solitary  witness  for  this  period,  received  his  Greek 
education  at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  and  was  succes- 
sively a  Stoic,  Peripatetic,  and  Platonist.  Occupied 
in  contemplation  in  a  place  of  retirement  near  the 
shore  of  the  sea,  he  was  abruptly  encountered,  and 
effectually  vanquished  by  an  aged  Christian.  The  in- 
teresting and  ingenious  arguments  are  detailed  in  his 
dialogue  with  Trypho.  Left  to  his  own  reflections, 
favored  with  no  other  interview,  wounded  by  the  ar- 
row of  conviction,  he  sought  and  found  his  cure  in 
Christianity,  the  only  true  philosophy.  Mingling  his 
old  attachments  with  evangelic  charity,  he  indulged 
the  hope,  that  Socrates  and  others  had  also  imbibed, 
at  least,  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel,  in  a  humble  degree. 

Retaining  the  habit,  he  exhibited  a  singular  specta- 
cle, a  philosopher  bleeding  in  the  cause  of  Christ.a 

»  «v  pwjuH  qi\o<roqcer  k±i  to/c  Koyoi;  **/  rttjiiu  k±i  Ta(r%>i/u.a.Ti. — 
Photius,  303. 


OF    CHRISTIAN-    CHURCHES.  17 

The  opinions  of  one,  never  an  ecclesiastic,  must 
have  been  viewed  with  less  prejudice.  Familiar  with 
men  of  science,  the  influence  of  his  character  on  those 
in  power,  rendered  him  important  to  the  suffering 
cause.  His  conversion  we  place  at  A.  D.  132,  and  his 
martyrdom  at  163,  without  danger  of  material  error. 
In  his  dialogue  he  mentions  his  apology.  The  pas- 
sage is  found  in  that,  which  has  been  placed  last,  but 
was  the  first.  This  appeal  to  the  understanding,  and 
feelings  of  the  discreet,  but  mistaken,  Antoninus  Pius, 
A.  D.  140,  whilst  the  blood  of  those,  whom  it  defended, 
was  flowing  under  a  merciless  persecution,  procured 
a  temporary  respite. 

In  his  description  of  public  worship,b  after  men- 
tioning prayers  and  the  fraternal  salutation,  he  says — 
"  There  is  brought  to  him  who  presides  over  the 
brethren,  *a  rtpos&tcon  ?w  aS&fcov,  bread  and  a  cup  of 
water,  and  wine,  and  he,  taking  them  offers  up  praise 
and  glory  to  the  Father  of  the  universe,  through  the 
name  of  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  renders 
thanks  for  these,  his  gifts.  At  the  close  of  his  petition 
and  thanksgivings,  all  the  people  present  say  Amen ; 
which,  in  the  Hebrew  language,  signifies  may  it  be  so. 
And  he  who  presides,  having  given  thanks,  svxapt,savtog 
Ss  -fov  7tpo£HTuto^,  and  the  whole  assembly  having  ex- 
pressed their  assent,  they  who  are  called  among  us 
deacons,  Siaxovoi,  distribute  the  bread,  and  the  wine 
and  water,  to  each  of  those  who  are  present,  to  par- 
take of  that  which  has  been  blessed.  Also  they  carry 
to  those  who  are  not  present." 

His  birth  in  Samaria,  the  natural  acumen  of  his  un- 
derstanding, his  philosophical  education  at  Alexan- 
dria, Christian  instruction,  through  eight  years,  in 
provincial  Asia,  and  religious  associations  at  Rome, 
are  pledges,  that  Justin  knew  the  forms  of  Clmstian 
worship.  His  piety,  character,  and  death,  secure  to 
his  testimony  the  claim  of  indefectible  veracity.  The 
high  ground  which  he  assumed,  as  the  advocate  of 

b    2  Apolog.  97.     Oxford  edition.     1  Apol.  127. 


18  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

the  whole  proscribed  church,  before  the  Emperor  and 
Senate  of  the  civilized  world,  rendered  every  word  a 
matter  of  life  and  death,  and  required  absolute  verity. 
Under  all  these  appalling  circumstances  he  testifies 
that  two  orders  only  officiated,  a  president,  Ttpoiotug, 
who  taught,  prayed,  and  administered  the  eucharist, 
and  deacons,  who  distributed  the  symbolical  elements. 
Lay-elders  are  not  named,  but  there  is  an  express 
assignation  to  deacons  of  the  work  now  thought  by 
some  to  belong  peculiarly  and  exclusively  to  them ; 
a  violent  presumption  that  there  were  no  such  officers. 

The  same  word  Ttpoe<stu$,  ruling  elder,  deemed  the 
principal  and  almost  solitaiy  scriptural0  proof  of 
this  lay  order,  is  here  the  clerical  character.  If  Paul 
meant  by  it  a  lay  presbyter,  it  is  strange  that,  in  forty 
years  from  John's  death,  the  ruling  elder  Ttpot<stu$  has 
become,  throughout  the  church,  the  presiding  officer 
in  every  charge — the  mouth  of  the  people  unto  God ; 
and  standing  in  the  place  of  Jesus  Christ,  takes,  blesses, 
and  administers  the  memorials  of  his  body  and  blood, 
devolving  his  own  original  employment,  if  a  lay  elder, 
upon  deacons  who  had  been  solemnly  ordained,  to  feed 
the  poor. 

If  the  "  brethren"  chtx^v  over  whom  he  presided 
were  the  people,  his  authority  may  be  referred  to 
his  office  as  presbyter ;  if  they  were  his  co-presbyters, 
or  bishops,  for  such  existed  in  all  the  churches,  and 
have  appeared  in  those  of  Smyrna,  of  Philippi,  Co- 
rinth, and  Rome,  he  was  that  primus  inter  pares,  who 
from  necessity  exists  in  all  presbyteries,  councils, 
assemblies,  and  other  public  bodies.  Among  presby- 
ters the  presidency  rested  not  on  ordination,  but  a 
voluntary  concession,  by  reason  of  seniority,  talents, 
grace,  or  influence.  Ertiaxortof  is  a  word  of  stronger 
import:  the  rtgosataf  far  from  having  the  oversight  of 
his  copresbyters,  retained  only  theirs*  standing  in  the 
same  order.  If  according  to  those  suppositions  letters 
too  zealously  attributed  to  the  venerable  Ignatius,  the 
cftinxoTtog  had  presided  in  every  church,  Justin  must 
c   1  Tim.v,3.  17. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  19 

have  known  it,  and  used  the  term,  or  have  been  justly- 
chargeable  with  misrepresentation.  But  the  term, 
bishop,  being  equally  applicable  to  every  presbyter,  as 
having  the  oversight  of  the  flock,  could  not  have  dis- 
tinguished the  presiding  bishop  from  his  brethren,  at 
whose  head  he  had  been  placed  by  common  consent, 
for  reasons  founded  in  utility.  In  the  same  apology, 
precious  to  the  ancient  Christians  for  its  timely  aid  in 
a  season  of  extreme  suffering,  it  is  again  published  to 
the  world,  that,  "  upon  that,  which  is  called  the  day 
of  the  Sun,  there  is  an  assembling  together  of  all  of  the 
respective  cities,  or  residing  in  the  country ;  and  the 
recollections  of  the  apostles,  and  the  writings  of  all  the 
prophets  are  read,  as  long  as  time  permits ;  when  the 
reader  has  ceased,  he  who  presides,  «  rtzoeatof  by  a 
discourse,  Sm  Tioyou,  admonishes  and  exhoi-ts,  to  the 
imitation  of  things  that  are  good.  We  then  all  rise 
up  together,  and  offer  prayer,  and  as  already  men- 
tioned, when  the  prayer  is  ended,  bread  is  brought, 
and  wine  and  water.  And  he  who  has  the  first  place, 
i  rtgosotug,  again  prays  and  gives  thanks,  according  to 
his  ability,  u-q  Swafttg  avty,  and  the  people  add  their 
approbation,  saying,  Amen.  And  a  distribution  and 
delivery  of  the  things,  upon  which  thanks  have  been 
given,  are  made  to  all,  and  sent  to  those  who  are  ab- 
sent, by  the  deacons.'"1  He  then  speaks  of  the  lift- 
ing of  a  collection  for  widows,  orphans,  prisoners, 
and  strangers, — which  is  deposited  rcapa  iu>  itgoEstuti, 
zvith  the  president. 

Had  error  obtained  in  the  former  description  of 
worship,  Justin  would  probably  have  discovered 
it  in  his  second  effort.  If  a  martyr  for  the  truth, 
which  he  records,  is  not  worthy  of  credit,  sincerity 
can  offer  no  higher  pledge.  He  has  a  second  time 
described  the  officers  of  a  Christian  church,  employed 
in  the  most  solemn  act  of  public  worship,  the  euchar- 
ist,  and  again  he  has  said  they  were  the  ^potato*?  scil. 
rtgtojvtepof,  presiding  elder,  and  the  Siaxovoi,,  deacons. 

It  were  weakness  to  expect  him  to  deny  the  exist- 
d    2  Apolog.  99,  Oxford  edit.  1  Apol.  1.3,  J  2. 


20  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

ence  of  lay  presbyters,  an  order  which  had  then  never 
been  named,  or,  as  we  suppose,  thought  of.  The 
reader  of  the  lessons  may  have  been  a  copresbyter, 
or  any  well  taught  member  of  the  Church.  The  pre- 
siding presbyter  expounded  and  applied  the  lesson 
orally ;  his  prayers  were  also  unwritten,  because  "  ac- 
cording to  his  ability ;"  and  he  alone  administered  the 
eucharist,  the  deacons  distributing  the  symbols  to  the 
people.  The  word  7tpos6fa$  being  a  participle,  and 
written  without  its  noun,  determines  only  an  order,  of 
which  this  person  stood  first.  Every  Christian  knew 
ttpssfivtipof,  elder,  was  intended;  and  other  readers  from 
the  force  of  the  term,  must  have  understood,  from  its 
application  to  Archons  and  Ephori,  that  an  order, 
ecclesiastic  and  peculiar  to  a  single  worshipping  as- 
sembly was  meant. 

This  history  establishes  the  fact,  that  the  elder,  zvho 
ruled,  rtpsoftvtipof  ^posa-tv?,  was  the  same  who  laboured 
in  word  xortcov  sv  -koyue  and  that  ruling  should  be 
understood  not  of  inferior  duties,  but  of  the  presi- 
dency. 

In  the  writings  of  Clement,  and  Polycarp,  it  has 
appeared,  that  a  plurality  of  presbyters,  or  bishops, 
existed  at  Ephesus,  Philippi,  Corinth,  and  Rome ;  and 
that  these,  with  the  deacons,  were  their  only  officers. 
In  every  regularly  constituted  church,  the  same  or- 
ders appear,  by  the  New  Testament,  to  have  been 
ordained.  No  instance  has  hitherto  occurred  of  the 
erection  of  an  office,  or  order,  of  higher  authority, 
than  that  of  presbyters,  or  bishops ;  nor  does  there  as 
yet,  appear  among  them  any  disparity.  One  only  in 
every  church  was  the  ripo^t^,  either  designated  by 
his  copresbyters,  or  by  the  society.  It  would  have 
been  improper  for  Justin,  in  his  description  of  the  pub- 
lic eucharistic  service,  to  have  mentioned  those  pres- 

e  1  Tim.  v.  17.  Thus  the  Apostle  Paul,  also  in  1  Thesal.  v. 
12,  by  the  word  labouring  rcvc  x.<j7ria>VTct.s  in  the  ivord,  and  set  over, 
x.u.1  7rpo;Ta.{Aivove,  the  church  at  Thessalonica,  and  admonishing 
them,  x.zi  vouQiTovTic,  evidently  means  the  same  persons  and  pres- 
byters, as  appears  by  the  omission  of  the  article  after  the  conjunc- 
tion, before  the  latter  epithets. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  21 

byters,  who,  for  the  time  present,  acted  no  other  part, 
than  merely  to  partake  with  the  people.  Neither  did 
the  distinctive  name  describe,  nor  the  work  of  him 
who  presided,  prove  him  to  be  of  a  superior  order. 
Although  Ttgosatuf  was  used  among  the  Lacedoemo- 
nians,  for  one  of  the  Ephori,  yet  they  possessed  an 
equality  of  power  and  grade.  Annually  elected  by 
the  people,  they  held  the  supreme  authority,  could 
summon  before  them,  charge  and  pass  judgment  upon 
the  king  himself.  The  rtpotot^  of  the  presbyters  or 
bishops  of  a  church,  worshipping  at  the  same  time,  in 
different  places,  in  a  city,  was  the  nearest  approach  to 
diocesan  episcopacy.  Yet  the  term,  by  which  he  was 
distinguished  from  the  other  presbyters,  being  the 
very  same  that  was  used  for  the  president  of  the  moral 
censors  of  Sparta,  who  were  of  equal  degree;  and 
the  term  rtpoeat^,  by  its  own  force,  implying  no  more 
than  the  first  place  or  station,  and  not  a  diversity  in 
the  kind  of  office,  it  was  discovered  by  rising  ambi- 
tion, to  be  necessary  to  abandon  the  word,  and  adopt, 
as  we  shall  soon  find,  the  word  irciaxonog  when  a  fur- 
ther distinction  was  intended.  Neither  was  the  Ttpoiotaf 
of  the  Ephori  clothed  with  the  power  of  a  dictator ; 
nor  his  colleagues  in  office  reduced  to  the  condition  of 
subordinate,  and  merely  dependent  counsellors.  In 
like  manner  the  npossr^s  of  presbyters  was  by  no 
means  vested  with  the  sole  power  of  ordaining  and 
deciding,  nor  were  his  copresbyters  in  any  church 
selected,  merely  to  advise,  or  execute. 

The  letter  of  the  church  at  Smyrna,  descriptive  of 
the  death  of  Polycarp,  if  genuine,  falls  into  the  middle 
part  of  this  century.  Pionius,  as  appears  by  its  post- 
script, obtained  it  by  a  revelation  made  to  him  by 
Polycarp,  long  after  his  death.  It  represents  that  the 
martyr  had  a  vision,  by  which  he  was  preadmonished 
of  his  martyrdom  by  fire ;  that  he  was  apprehended 
on  Friday,  brought  on  an  ass  to  the  city ;  that  he  was 
accosted  when  coming  to  the  place  of  suffering  by  a 
voice  from  heaven ;  that,  by  a  wonderful  miracle,  the 
flame  encompassed  him  in  a  hollow  circle  and  his 


22  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

body  could  not  be  burned,  but  afterwards  was  wound- 
ed, and  was,  when  dead,  consumed  by  fire ;  that  an 
odour  ascended  like  frankincense  and  rich  spices;  that 
being  pierced  with  a  lance,  a  dove  escaped,  and  the 
blood  extinguished  the  fire.  The  pious  and  venerable 
Polycarp,  in  extreme  old  age,  suffered  martyrdom 
about  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  Of  this  no 
one  doubts ;  and  that  many  of  the  sorrowful  circum- 
stances of  it,  may  have  been  embodied  in  this  won- 
drous letter,  is  possible ;  but  how  much  of  it  is  true, 
must  be  submitted  to  every  reader.  Those  who  will 
compare  that  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  letter  itself, 
with  Eusebius,  will  see  that  even  where  he  professes 
to  give  the  words,  he  omits,  interpolates,  changes  and 
mangles  the  letter,  in  a  manner  suited  to  destroy  all 
confidence  in  the  representations  of  Constantine's 
favored  historian.  The  letter  we  believe,  never 
mentions  either  the  word  presbyter  or  deacon.  It 
purports  to  have  been  written  by  one  church  unto 
another,  omitting  the  officers  of  both.     In  it  the  word 

bishop  Once  OCCUrS yevopevo?    srtiSxortof    *g    ty    tv   Xpvpvfl 

xaOouxr;^  txxXqGia$.  "  Being  a  bishop  of  the  Catholic 
church  in  Smyrna."  That  Polycarp  was  a  presbyter, 
that  every  presbyter  was  a  bishop,  and  that  a  plurali- 
ty of  this  order  existed  in  every  church,  have  been 
shown.  We  have  also  already  ventured  the  supposi- 
tion that  he  was  a  itposg-tog,  presiding  presbyter.  For 
president,  the  term  bishop  was  soon  after  this,  substi- 
tuted. If  trtioxortof  be  so  taken  in  this  letter,  against 
which  we  confess  the  omission  of  the  article  to  be  no 
argument,  the  anticipation  is  fatal  to  the  genuineness 
of  that  sentence,  and  thrown  into  the  scale,  renders 
still  lighter  the  credibility  of  the  whole  letter. 

The  character  of  Hegesippus,  a  Jewish  convert, 
who  wrote  five  historical  books,  which  have,  except 
fragments,  perished,  has  been  doubted  by  many  wri- 
ters, catholic  and  protestant.  Also  the  circumstance 
that  these  fragments,  except  an  irrelevant  sentence 
preserved  by  Photius,  have  been  derived  from  Euse- 
bius, and  no  doubt  accommodated  to  the  language  of 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  23 

his  own  times,  renders  his  evidence  of  little  weight. 
This  historian  introduces  his  quotation  by  e*  Sia  S^otf 
in  which  he  discovers;  and  then,  proceeding  in  his  own 
words,  he  says,  "  going  to  Rome  he,"  Hegesippus, 
"  fell  in  company  with  many  bishops" — "  and  found 
them  to  hold  the  same  doctrine."  That  the  church  of 
Corinth  remained  orthodox,  sv  tuiopecp  xoya,  until  the 
time  of  Primus'  acting  as  bishop,  traaxonowto^  in  Co- 
rinth."— "  Being  in  Rome  I  abode  until  the  succession 
of  Anicetus,  whose  deacon  Eleutherus  was;  Soter 
succeeded  Anicetus,  and  Eleutherus,  Soter." 

"After  James,  the  just,  died,  as  his  Lord  had  done, 
for  the  same  word,  Simon  the  son  of  Cleopas,  his 
uncle,  was  chosen  bishop,  whom  all  preferred,  be- 
cause he  was  the  Lord's  next  kinsman. "s 

The  denominating  presbyters,  bishops,  is  unexcep- 
tionable, for  such  they  were.  That  one  of  them  pre- 
sided in  every  church  from'  the  apostles'  days  is 
equally  certain.  To  reckon  up  the  succession  by 
these,  was  in  no  wise  improper.  But  all  these  things 
fall  far  short  of  proving  a  diversity  of  office  among 
presbyters,  or  a  difference  of  order. 

An  apostle,  as  such,  possessed  powers  and  had 
duties  to  accomplish  beyond  those  of  a  presiding  pres- 
byter. We  ought  not  therefore  to  conclude,  that,  be- 
cause the  Scriptures  have  not  mentioned  the  travels 
of  James,  all  his  labours  were  confined  to  Jerusalem. 
The  numbers  sometimes  mentioned  to  be  there,  pro- 
bably include  visitants  coming  up  to  the  feasts.  There 
is  no  evidence  of  an  extension  of  his  authority  over 
Judea,  though  the  thing  is  possible;  or  that  there  were 
then  different  places  of  worship  of  Christians  in  Jeru- 
salem. And  if  there  had  been,  and  he  had  exercised 
a  general  authority,  it  was  that  of  an  apostle.  That 
the  apostles  should  have  successors  in  their  ordinary 
powers,  to  teach,  baptize,  ordain,  censure,  &c,  may 
be  fairly  inferred  from  the  promise  of  Christ's  pre- 
sence, which  could  only  be  divine,  annexed  to  their 

f  Euseb.  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  iy,  cb.  22. 
S  Ibid,  and  Nicephor.  Cal.  lib.  iy.  c.  7. 


24  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

commission.  That  these  duties  were  to  be  performed 
by  the  presbyters,  or  bishops  of  every  particular 
church,  is  capable  of  positive  proof.  That  in  every 
presbytery  there  came  to  be  a  president,  is  undeniable. 
But  it  remains  to  be  proved  that  such  officer  received 
a  second  ordination ;  either  by  scriptural  authority, 
or  in  the  apostles'  days ;  h  or  that  the  presbyters 
of  a  church  were  so  ordained,  as  that  one  species  of 
them  was  authorized  to  preach,  and  another  restrained 
from  the  exercise  of  such  power. 

Having  now  passed  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury and  found  one  kind  only  of  elders,  and  these  the 
only  ministers  of  the  word,  we  may  infer  that  such  is 
the  fair  construction  of  the  JVezv  Testament,  on  the  ordi- 
nary officers  of  the  church.  The  innovations  which 
we  are  soon  to  witness  in  their  gradual  progress,  were 
unauthorized  and  consequently  mere  nullities.  Though 
every  denomination  has  on  some  point  erred,  and  the 
original  names  of  the  officers  have  been  often  changed 
the  providence  of  God  has  in  every  age  preserved  the 
two  orders,  and  a  legitimate  administration.  But  if 
the  outward  forms  had  all  perished,  being  only  means 
to  an  end,  and  consequently  of  minor  importance,  the 
characteristics  of  his  true  church  have  remained, 
"  righteousness  and  peace,  and  joy  in  the  Holy  Ghost" 

h  The  Apostolical  constitutions  need  no  refutation.  The  Apos- 
tolical traditions,  referred  to  by  Hippolitus,  we  design  to  consider, 
when  he  arrives,  in  the  first  part  of  the  third  century. 


SECTION    IV. 

Christianity  was  taught  as  philosophy  by  Tatian  and  his  preceptor  Justin,  both 
laymen- — The  letter  of  Vienne  and  Lyons,  differently  represented;  Pothimts 
a  presbyter,  7rponr]a>;,  and  Iren&us  the  same. — Melito  and  Athenagoras 
professed  the  neu>  philosophy,  and  Hermias  wrote  "The  Discordance  of  Phi- 
losophers."— Iheophilus  of  Antioch  speaks  of  no  officer  in  the  church- — 
Irenceus  was  a  presbyter,  at  Lyons,  hitherto  there  is  no  other  higher  ordina- 
tion, or  office — The  evidence  given  by  Irenmus  makes  presbyter  and  bishop 
the  same  office,  and  that  the  succession  from,  the  apostles  was  by  presbyters.    t 


That  "destructive  superstition"  which  Tacitus  had 
pronounced  almost  repressed  by  the  Neronian  perse- 
cution, surviving  also  the  edicts  of  his  successors,  ob- 
tained some  respite  in  the  last  thirty  years  of  the  se- 
cond century,  the  period  assigned  to  this  section.  The 
philosophic  Pliny  had  expressed  a  sentiment,  too  pre- 
valent in  the  second  century,  that  Christianity  was  a 
crime  fit  to  be  expiated  by  death.  Entitled  to  no  legal 
toleration,  though  sometimes  screened  by  the  ignor- 
ance or  caprice  of  a  Galleo,  the  profession  could  be 
avowed  only  at  the  hazard  of  life.  The  only  possible 
motive  to  accept  or  exercise  an  office  in  the  church, 
under  such  chxumstances,  must  have  been  duty,  not 
dignity;  conscience,  not  interest.  Paul  had  saved  his 
life,  by  claiming  to  teach  the  Athenians  the  knowledge 
of  their  own  God.  Many,  with  more  success  than 
Socrates,  taught,  bearing  no  office  among  Christians, 
a  philosophy  deemed  to  have  originated  among  bar- 
barians. An  appetite  for  saving  knowledge  values 
offices,  as  means  subordinate  to  a  higher  end,  the  ac- 
quisition of  truth.  Every  Christian  applauds  Justin, 
receiving,  in  the  habit  of  a  philosopher,  the  crown  of 
martyrdom. 

D 


26  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

Tatian  was  his  disciple,  axporprjg  hearer,  says  Irenseus, 
■who  charges  him  with  apostacya  after  the  death  of 
his  patron.  "An  oration  to  the  Greeks,"  is  the  only 
surviving  production  of  Tatian.  Written  with  ele- 
gance and  point,  and  not  far  distant  from  orthodoxy, 
it  pleases,  but  contains  nothing  that  bears  upon  the 
present  inquiry.  He  calls  himself,  in  a  philosophic 
sense,  a  preacher  of  the  truth,  x^vxa  tqg  ca^ata?  (p.  64.) 
certainly  neither  as  Noah  nor  Paul,  of  whom  the  same 
expression  is  used.  After  representing  himself  born 
among  the  Assyrians,  and  educated  among  the  Greeks, 
he  again  says,  that  he  preached  xrjpvlltw,  professing  to 
know  God  and  his  works.  The  good  sense  of  the  "  Ora- 
tion" is  justly  commended  by  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
and  by  Origen.  Justin  was  a  philosopher,  not  a  pres- 
byter; yet  he  taught :  and  Tatian,  a  hearer  of  Justin, 
preached,  but  as  a  layman.  If  laymen  did,  at  this  pe- 
riod, preach  without  censure,5  it  is  not  probable  that 
there  were  presbyters  restricted  from  a  privilege  so 
common. 

Large  fragments  of  a  letter,  purporting  to  have  been 
written  by  the  churches  of  Vienne,  and  Lyons,  in 
Gaul,  have  been  preserved  by  Eusebius  and  Nicepho- 
rus.  It  describes  some  most  affecting  scenes  of  suffer- 
ings, in  the  persecution  which  took  place,  it  is  said,  in 
the  17th  year  of  Mark  Antonine,  A.  D.  177.  There  has 
been  nothing  found  in  the  letter  concerning  our  subject, 
except  the  mention  of  the  offices  of  two  of  the  martyrs. 
The  first  is  of  Sanctus,  who  is  styled  a  deacon  from 
Vienne,  Siaxovo?  a7toBifW7jg:  the  other  of  the  venerable 
Pothinus,  who  died  in  his  ninetieth  year,  in  prison, from 
the  abuse  he  received  at  his  trial.  He  is  said  in  the 
letter,  according  to  Eusebius,  to  have  been  "  intrusted 
with  the  ministry  of  the.  episcopate  in  Lyons,"  °  <eip>  Siaxonav 

•trii    trti6xo7tr[$   iv  Tivy&vva   7t£7ti$liv[isvof.      Nicephoi'US    has 

given  the  same  portion  of  the  letter,  with  more  sim- 
plicity in  those  words:  "  Pothinus,  a  minister  of  the 

ft  Iren.  lib.  i.  Ch.  30.  31. — attcstac  tch;  iicKK)i<riu.;. 
k  Tei'tullian's  complaint  was  afterwards. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  27 

church  at  Lyons" — Ho9ei,vo$  8s  I  Siaxovof  fifi  %vy8vvuiv  txxl.r^t- 

o?."  If  Nicephorus  wrote  from  the  letter  itself,  the 
last  is  the  truth;  or  if  he  compiled  from  Eusebius,  his 
was  probably  still  the  original  reading  both  of  Euse- 
bius and  the  letter ;  and  the  term  Siaxoeoj'  may  have 
been  subsequently  changed  into  Siaxoviav,  and  utioxort'^ 
inserted.  We  have  shown,  in  a  former  section,  that 
Eusebius  was  unfaithful  in  his  quotations  of  ancient 
writings.  That  Pothinus  was  the  Tt^glco^  ox  presiding 
presbyter,  and  consequently  a  bishop  of  the  church  at 
Lyons,  is  very  possible.0  The  church  appears  to 
have  been  small,  and  the  cause  of  truth  an  object  of 
hatred  and  contempt,  in  that  region ;  it  is,  therefore, 
improbable  that  a  diversity  in  orders,  which,  as  yet, 
existed  nowhere  else,  should  have  originated  there. 
Also,  Irenceus,  who  was  a  presbyter  in  the  same  place, 
will  presently  be  found  to  have  known  no  difference 
between  presbyter  and  bishop.  As  there  appears  in 
this  letter  no  order  above  that  of  presbyter,  which  hith- 
erto always  had  the  oversight,  so  we  find  no  lay  pres- 
byters. 

Melito  of  Sardis  wrote,  about  A.  D.  182,  several 
works,  the  titles  of  which  Eusebius  has  preserved,  with 
a  fragment  of  his  Apology  for  what  he  calls  the  new 
philosophy,  and  an  important  catalogue  of  the  books  of 
the  Old  Testament.  But  there  remains  nothing  from 
him  on  our  subject. 

Athenagoras  is  a  writer  who  also  fallswithin  our  pre- 
sent period.  The  proofs  in  support  of  his  Apology  for 
Christians, andofhis  Discourse  on  the  Resurrection  are 
few  and  modern ;  yet  no  one  can  read  the  book,  and 
doubt  its  genuineness.  The  Apology,  being  directed  to 
Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus,  sufficiently  deter- 
mines its  own  date.  Written  to  idolaters,  its  arguments 

c  Mons.  Blondel  (Apol.  p.  23 — 32)  has  proved,  that  it  was  nine 
years  after  Irensus  had  been  placed  in  the  chair,  -n-gofi onctdiSgio, 
of  Pothinus,  a  bishop  and  martyr,  at  Lyons,  when  he  was  repre- 
sented in  a  letter  written  by  that  church  to  Eleutherius,  as  their 
brother  and  a  presbyter  of  the  church,  a;  Trgurfiulegov  tKx.Kn<r(a.c.—~ 
Euseb.  Lib.  v.  C  4. 


28  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

are  as  they  should  be,  chiefly  drawn  from  reason.  This 
writer  styles  himself  an  Athenian,*1  and  a  philoso- 
pher, and  the  Apology  speaks  itself  the  work  of  a  Chris- 
tian, and  well  suited  to  its  period.  His  arguments,  in 
the  discourse  concerning  the  resurrection,  are  worthy 
of  attention  even  in  the  present  day.  Of  church  of- 
ficers, we  have  been  able  tc  find  no  mention  in  either 
of  his  productions. 

The  tract  of  Hermias,  called  the  "  Irrisio  Gentium," 
or  "  Atacu^o;- ,"  which  is  more  properly  the  discordance 
of  philosophers,  is  of  uncertain  time,  but  very  ancient ; 
and  is  probably  the  genuine,  though  unsupported  pro- 
duction of  a  Christian.  The  various  opinions  of  the 
nature  of  the  soul,  the  chief  good,  and  our  future  con- 
dition, are  well  contrasted,  and  with  great  effect.  It 
terminates  abruptly,  but  not  before  it  has  well  estab- 
lished the  position  with  which  it  commenced,  that 
"  The  wisdom  of  this  xwrld  is  foolislmess  with  God."  It 
touches  not  our  subject. 

There  are  three  small  books,  written  by  Theophi- 
lus  of  Antioch  to  his  friend  Autolycus,  an  idolater. 
The  writer  had  been  himself  a  heathen,  and  appears 
to  have  had  much  Greek  learning.  The  first  is  a 
general  defence  of  the  nature  and  perfections  of  the 
true  God,  of  his  work  of  creation,  and  of  the  resur- 
rection. The  second  is  against  idolatry,  and  the  dif- 
ferent opinions  of  philosophers ;  and  compares  the 
cosmogony  of  the  poets  with  that  of  Moses.  He 
speaks  of  the  "Trinity  (T^taSof)  of  God,  and  of  the  Lo- 
gos, and  of  wisdom."  He  says  it  was  the  Logos  who 
appeared  in  Paradise;  and  though  he  describes  him  as 
an  effect,  yet  represents  him  as  being  at  the  first  in 
God.  In  the  third,  after  vindicating  Christians  from 
aspersions,  he  compares  the  profane  with  the  Scriptu- 
ral chronology.  There  is  no  claim  of  an  ecclesiasti- 
cal office  by  the  writer,  nor  even  the  mention  of  any 

d  Phillip  Sidetes  (apud  Dodwell,  p.  489)  says,  that  he  studied 
the  Scriptures  on  purpose  to  confute  them,  but  became  convinced 
of  their  truth. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  29 

m  either  of  the  books.  They  bear  all  the  marks  of 
genuineness.  His  death  has  been  placed  at  periods 
somewhat  different,  but  the  weight  of  probability 
seems  to  determine  it  to  about  the  year  of  Christ  182, 
which  is  but  two  years  later  than  the  death  of  Mar- 
cus Aurelius,  expressed  in  the  end  of  his  third  book,  as 
the  last  period  of  his  chronological  calculation. 

Irenaeus  was  a  Greek  of  Asia  Minor,  for  he  remem- 
bered there  to  have  seen,  when  a  youth,  the  vrenerable 
Polycarp.  He  spent  his  advanced  life  in  Gaul,  at 
Lyons.  That  he  was  a  presbyter,  we  learn  from  his 
own  church.  That  he  received  any  other  ordination, 
or  held  any  other  office,  there  is  no  competent  proof, 
nor  have  we  found  any  evidence  of  such  occurrence 
in  his  day.  That  he  was  a  "  disciple  of  Polycarp,1' 
and  was  "  raised  to  the  episcopal  chair"  upon  the  death 
of  Pothinus,  ought  neither  to  be  assumed,  nor  granted 
without  evidence  brought  from  the  second  century. 
That  he  died  a  martyr,  has  been  often  said,  but  gratui- 
tously, because  asserted  too  lately.  His  death  may 
be  placed  with  sufficient  correctness,  after  many  vain 
efforts  at  precision  on  the  point,  about  the  commence- 
ment of  the  third  century.  He  wrote  five  books 
against  the  wild  opinions  of  Valentinus,  and  other 
Gnostics.  Of  these  a  Latin  version  censured  by  diffe- 
rent writers  as  feverish,  faulty,  and  barbarous;  and 
some  Greek  fragments,  in  Eusebius,  Epiphanius,  John 
Damascenus  and  Nicephorus,  together  with  some 
portions  of  letters,  yet  remain.  The  moral  endow- 
ments of  this  father  were  much  greater  than  his  intel- 
lectual. Under  all  disadvantages,  the  facts,  so  far 
as  given  from  his  own  observation,  are  worthy  of 
belief. 

In  a  fragment  of  an  epistle  written  to  Florinus  on 
the  subject  of  the  errors  of  Valentinus,  and  preserved  by 
Eusebius,  he  says :  "  These  doctrines,  they  who  were 
presbyters  before  us,  it  *$<>  tftuv  rt^t^vtt^oi,  and  who 
were  the  followers  of  the  apostles,  never  delivered 
unto  thee.  If  that  blessed  and  apostolic  presbyter 
Polycarp,  had  heard  anv  such  thing,  &c.  he  would 
d2 


30  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

have  said,"  &c.  In  the  fragment  of  a  letter  to  Victor 
at  Rome,  who  had  attempted  to  cause  the  Asiatic 
churches,  on  account  of  a  diversity  in  the  observance 
of  Easter,  to  be  excommunicated,  Irenasus  possessing 
equal  authority  and  more  prudence,  says,  "  Those 
presbyters  who,  before  Soter  presided  over  that 
church  which  you  now  govern,  h  te,o  Xal^og  jt^taj3v?tgoi, 

h  rtzoslavlsf  tut  txxXri6ia$  i$  vvv  afyrjyr;,  &C.    I  Speak  of  Ani- 

cetus,  and  Pius,  and  Hyginus,  with  Telesphorus  and 
_  Sixtus,  they  neither  observed  it  themselves,  nor  did 
they  require  those  who  were  under  them.  Those  who 
were  presbyters  before  you,  who  did  not  observe  the 
custom  of  the  Asiatic  churches,  h  ^  tqpowTsg  U  srgo 
aov  TTgto-fivttgoi  sent  the  eucharist  to  those  from  other 
churches,  who  did  observe  it.  Neither  did  Polycarp 
persuade  Anicetus  to  observe  it,  who  alleged  that  he 
ought  to  maintain  the  custom  of  the  presbyters,  who 

had  2*01ie  before  YlilTl,  ^»v  a-vvnQnuv  tuv  7rgo  Avrivprgar/iuligasv." 

By  these  letters  it  is  clear  that  Polycarp,  and  the 
predecessors  of  Victor,  who  are  in  modern  times  in 
the  catalogue  of  popes,  were  presbyters  ;  and  conse- 
quently other  Christian  churches  could  have  had  no 
higher  officers  than  the  Trgsa-^ultgoi  vgoa-lavlH,  presiding 
presbyters.  To  these  were  attributed  the  continuance 
of  the  succession  from  the  apostles.  To  them  resort 
was  had  for  the  tradition  of  the  custom  in  relation  to 
Easter.  That  these  presbyters  were  bishops,  no  one 
will  deny ;  they  were  consequently  not  laymen.  The 
Papal  predecessor,  neither  possessed  infallibility,  nor 
even  superiority  over  Irenasus,  who  in  this  letter  writ- 
ten in  presence  of  his  brethren,  ah&fav,  in  Gaul,  thus 
arraigned  his  conduct.  The  term  presbyter,  so  often 
repeated  in  these  letters,  may  be  taken  sometimes  ap- 
pellatively,  but  then  the  persons  so  denominated  have 
received  no  official. designation.  Its  connexion  also 
with  the  epithet.  7rgc<rla.vla,  presiding,  the  expression 
<t?ro<rroKi)io;  Trgufivlsgsc,  and  the  uncertainty  of  such  de- 
scriptions, as,  "  those  rvho  zcere  old  men  before  you"  show 
the  official  sense  to  have  been  at  least  sometimes  de- 
signed.   If  the  correptions  intended  in  these  letters, 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  31 

should  be  assigned  as  a  reason  for  the  omission  of  titles, 
yet  justice  and  truth  required,  that  their  offices  in  the 
church  should  have  been  fairly  recognized,  had  differ- 
ent orders  of  preachers  then  existed. 

Speaking  of  the  unwillingness  of  the  heretics  to  be 
bound,  either  by  the  Scriptures  or  by  the  traditions  of 
the  churches,  he  says :  (lib.  iii.   c.  2,  s.  2.)    "  When 
we  appeal  to  that  tradition  which  is  from  the  apostles, 
and  is  preserved  in  the  churches,  through  the  succes- 
sions of  the  presbyters,  per  successiones  presbyterorum, 
they  oppose  traditions,  saying,  that  they  are  wiser, 
not  only  than  the  presbyters,  but  even  than  the  apos- 
tles."    That  by  presbyters  here,  are  meant  officers, 
seems  conclusively  established  by  their  successions. 
These  were  necessarily  described  by  the  successive 
primi,  or  irpoio-luflte.     In  the  next  chapter  he  observes  : 
"  It  is  easy  for  all  who  wish  to  see  the  truth,  to  behold 
in  every  church  the  traditional  doctrines  of  the  apos- 
tles announced  in  all  the  world,  and  we  can  enume- 
rate those,  who  by  the  apostles  were  ordained,  instituti 
sunt,  bishops,  episcopi,  in  -the  churches,  and  the  succes- 
sors, (or  successions,)  of  them,  even  to  ourselves; 
who  taught  no  such  thing ;    nor  did  they  know  what 
is  doted   about  by  these.     For  if  the  apostles   had 
known  hidden  mysteries,  which  they  were  teaching 
to  higher  proficients  in  secret,  and  without  the  know- 
ledge of  the  rest,  they  would  especially  have  delivered 
them  to  those  to  whom  they  committed  the  churches. 
For  they  earnestly  desired  that  they  should  be  perfect 
in  all  things,  and  irreprehensible,  whom  they  were 
leaving  as  successors,  delivering  up  their  own  place 
of  government,  suum  ipsorum  locum  magisterii  tra- 
dentes."     The  very  same  traditions  and  successions, 
here  referred  to  bishops,  were,  in  the  next  preceding 
chapter  predicated  expressly  of  presbyters.    If,  there- 
fore, the  passage  in  this  chapter  be  taken  alone,  as  it 
has  sometimes  been,  and  accounted  "  the  testimony 
of  Irena:us,"  it  will,  though  true  in  the  sense  of  the 
writer,  speak  what  he  never  intended  ;  at  least,  it  will 
do  so  in  the  eyes  of  those  who  understand  the  term 


32  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

bishop  in  their  own  modern  acceptation.  Those, 
therefore,  whom  later  times  have  elevated  into  dio- 
cesan bishops,  were,  in  the  days  of  Irenaeus,  bishops 
only  as  they  were  presbyters.  When  enumerated  in 
successions,  because  presiding  presbyters  in  particu- 
lar churches,  they  must  have  been  ordained  in  the 
same  manner  as  other  presbyters ;  since  there  is  no 
evidence  that  there  was  as  yet  any  but  one  ordina- 
tion of  elders.  To  represent  the  magisterium  which 
was  given  to  officers,  indifferently  called  presbyters 
and  bishops,  as  an  authority  given  to  bishops  over 
presbyters,  is  to  adopt  a  conclusion  without  premises. 
To  say  that  the  successic?i  and  mastership  affirmed  by 
Irenaeus  of  bishops,  who  were  presbyters,  are  a  proof, 
that  bishops  in  the  modern  sense,  were  intended  by 
him,  is  the  petitio  principii,  or  weakness  of  begging  the 
question. 

The  frequent  mention,  made  by  this  writer,  of  the 
uninterrupted  successions  in  several  of  the  principal 
churches,  does  not  appear  to  have  proceeded  from 
his  respect  to  the  dignity,  or  even  to  the  importance 
of  such  presidential  authority  in  the  respective  par- 
ticular churches,  but  from  the  certainty  which  he  sup- 
posed to  have  been  hereby  attached  to  the  traditional 
doctrines  which  he  opposed  to  the  heretics,  against 
whom  he  wrote.  The  gift  to  Linus  of  the  public  work 
of  the  episcopate,  or  oversight,  "  urimomi  Kwrovfyta.,"*  be- 
ing understood  of  the  individual  church  at  Rome, 
"  £xxx??<jia,"  expresses  care  and  labor,  not  worldly 
honor.  So  Clement,  who  succeeded  Linus,  and  Poly- 
carp,  mentioned  under  the  same  circumstances  in  this 
chapter  thought.  That  Irenseus  intended  no  superiori- 
ty above  presbyters  is  also  clear ;  because  he  after- 
wards assigns  the  episcopate,  in  so  many  words,  to 
presbyters.  "  It  is  proper,"  says  he,  "  to  obey  those 
presbyters,  eis  presbyteris,  who  are  in  the  church, "  his."1 
these,  who  have  succession  from  the  apostles,  as  we 
have  shown;  who  with  the  succession  of  the  episco- 

e   Lib.  iii.  C.  3.  S.  2.  3. 


OF    CHRISTIAN"     CHURCHES.  33 

pate,  qui  cum  episcopatus  successione,  have  received  the 
sure  gift  of  the  truth,  according  to  the  will  of  the  Fa- 
ther." f  "  Presbyters"  it  has  been  objected,  may  mean 
here,  old  men.  But  he  contrasts  those  presbyters,  with 
the  heretical  preachers,  and  speaks  of  them  as  bei?ig  in 
the  church,  and  having  succession  from  the  apostles,  and 
with  the  succession  of  the  episcopate,  as  having  re- 
ceived the  gift  of  the  truth;  that  is,  those  sound  doc- 
trines, which  are  taught  in  the  original  churches.  On 
all  which  accounts,  they  were  to  be  obeyed,  rather  than 
the  heretics,  who  had  none  of  these  things.  "Such 
presbyters,  fte.£oi3v7teov$"  he  says  in  another  place,  "the 
church  nourishes,  concerning  whom  also  the  prophet 
says,  'I  will  give  your  princes,  ap^oi/Za?,  in  peace,  and 
bishops,  S7ti6xo7iovg  in  righteousness.'  "s  The  prophecy 
which  he  here  introduces,  in  support  of  presbyters,  ex- 
presses bishops.  The  succession  from  the  apostles, 
which  he  sometimes  affirms  of  bishops,h  he  also  ap- 
plied to  presbyters:  repeatedly  thus  discovering,  that 
he  accounted  presbyters  to  be  bishops,  and  bishops 
presbyters.  When  Irenaeus  therefore  makes  presby- 
ters the  successors  of  the  apostles,  and  ascribes  the 
episcopacy  to  presbyters,  he  may  be  considered  a  very 
positive,  as  well  as  competent  witness  to  establish,  that 
there  were  no  preachers,  after  the  apostles  and  evan- 
gelists, of  an  order  higher  than  that  of  presbyters,  nor 
any  presbyters,  of  an  inferior  grade. 

In  another  place  he  speaks  of  bishops,  as  of  those  to 
whom  the  apostles  delivered  the  churches,  "episcopi  quibus 
Apostoli  tradiderunt  ecclesias,"  and  says  that  "the  church 
every  where  preaches  the  truth."  '  In  the  next  para- 
graph he  observes,  that  "They  who  leave  (relinqtiunt) 
the  preaching  of  the  church,  praeconium  ecclesm,  accuse 
arguunt  the  holy  presbyters  of  ignorance."  The  pres- 
byters named  in  this  passage  are  spoken  of  as  the  only 
preachers  then  in  the  church,  as  having  had  succession 
from  the  apostles,  as  being  the  bishops  to  whom  the 

f  Lib.  iv.  C.  26.  S.  2.  s  Lib.  iv.  C.  26,  S.  5. 

b  Lib.  iv.  C.  33.  i    Lib.  v.  20. 


34  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

church  was  committed,  and  evidently  the  highest  of- 
ficers, at  that  period  existing  in  the  church.  The  wri- 
ter is  speaking  of  his  own  day,  and  in  the  present 
tense,  and  therefore  excludes  the  fond  conceit  of  those 
who  imagine  that  Irenasus  used  the  terms  bishop  and 
presbyter  promiscuously,  only  of  those,  who  lived  be- 
fore his  day-  It  is  plain  that  one  preaching  office  only 
existed  in  this  age.  He  mentions  no  preaching  officer 
of  his  day  either  superior  or  inferior  to  a  presbyter, 
and  no  class  among  presbyters  who  were  not  preach- 
ers. Neither  do  the  works  which  remain  of  Irenasus, 
nor  any  other  genuine  writing  in  or  before  his  time, 
appear  to  contain  a  solitary  proof  of  any  distinction 
in  the  office  of  presbyter. 

One  passage  only  have  we  found  in  Irenasus  to  pre- 
sent a  semblance  of  variance  with  the  promiscuous 
use  of  presbyter  and  bishop.  "The  bishops  and  pres- 
byters who  were  from  Ephesus,  and  other  neighbour- 
ing cities,  being  convened  at  Miletus,  because  he," 
Paul,  "was  hastening  to  spend  Pentecost  at  Jerusa- 
lem," &c.k  In  the  history  of  "the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles," the  bishops  only  of  a  single  "flock,"  or  church 
are  addressed,  unless  we  suppose  them  placed  over  the 
whole  Christian  church.  Consequently,  they  who  are 
on  that  occasion  called  presbyters,  are  the  same  per- 
sons whom  Paul  denoirunates  bishops.  If  the  original 
of  this  inconsistent  passage  should  ever  emerge  from 
darkness,  and  no  article  should  follow  the  x<u  before 
7te,tG$vae,uv,  the  identical  persons  were  at  the  same  time 
bishops  and  presbyters.  This  hearsay  evidence,  for  a 
version  is  no  more,  of  a  distinction  in  the  only  preach- 
ing office,  appears  in  a  faulty,  barbarous  and  misera- 
ble translation,  the  original  of  which,  at  the  place,  has 
been  lost.  It  not  only  stands  alone,  and  is  at  variance 
with  every  book  and  testimony  before  it,  but  it  is  dia- 
metrically opposed  to  all  the  numerous  representa- 
tions of  Irenasus  himself  upon  the  same  subject.  And 
after  all,  if  the  distinction  had  been  expressed  by  him, 

k  Lib.  iii.  c.  14. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  35 

and  had  been  true,  it  could  have  furnished  not  even  the 
idea  of  a  lay  presbyter. 

That  this  passage  in  the  translation  falsely  repre- 
sents the  mind  of  Irenseus,  plainly  appears,  when  he 
afterwards  expressly  affirms  the  office  of  presbyter  to 
be  the  highest  in  the  church.      "They  who  have  also 
been  accredited  as  presbyters  by  many,  but  serve  theii 
own  pleasures  and  have  no  fear  of  God,  in  their  hearts, 
who  treat  others  reproachfully  and  are  puffed  uij  with 
the  loftiness  of  the  principal  seat,  et  principalis  conces- 
sionis  tumore  elati  sunt,  and  do  evil  in  secret,  and  say 
no  one  sees   us,  shall  be  condemned  by  the  Word." 
This  language  plainly  represents,  that  the  presbyterial 
office  was  the  highest  in  the  church.     If  the  ^osaluJtf 
presidents  of  churches  are  here  intended,  tfhich  is  pro- 
bable, because  he  speaks  of  such  in  the  pe-sons  of  So- 
ter, Victor  and  others, in  the  present  catalogue  of  popes, 
yet  they  ai-e  in  this  place  expressly  called  presbyters. 
The  testimony  of  Irenseus  is  therefore  upon  the  whole 
decisive,  that  in  his  day,  the  office  of  presbjters  was 
one  and  undivided,  and  the  highest  in  the  Christian 
church ;  and  consequently  that  lio  presbyters  were  lay- 
men. 


SECTION    V. 

■• 

Clemens  Alexandrinus  mentions,  a  7r£aflox.aL&ifpiu,  first  seat,  in  each  presby- 
Igj-y  and  although  he  mentions  presbyters,  bishops  and  deacons,  yet  he  shows 
there  "vere  but  two  orders. — Tertullian  supports  Justin's  description  of  a 
eucharisl  and  proves  an  antistes  or  president  in  the  presbytery  of  each 
church  ■  cu^s  ^l's   highest  priest  the  bishop,  and  affirms  Ms  right  to  grant 

baptism. He  makes  a  succession  of  such  bishops  from  the  apostles  in  the 

first  churches  a  *es'  of  the  orthodox  faith  which  the  heretics  coidd  not  furnish. 

No  alteration  appears  in  the  offices  of  the  church 
during  the  cond  century,  unless  with  the  change  of 
president,  tt^otalag,  for  sjt^xo7to;  bishop,  presbyters  began 
to  act  by  his  appointment,  or  in  his  presence.  Though 
not  in  w  iters  hitherto  examined,  some  traces  of  it  are 
in  the  two  assigned  to  this  section;  who  lived  in  both 
centuries. 

Titus  Flavius  Clemens  is  called  Atheniensis  because 
educated  at  Athens ;  Alexandrinus,  because  instructed 
in  the  catechetical  school  of  Panteenus,  and  a  presby- 
ter of  the  church  at  Alexandria.  The  preceptor  of 
Origin,  Alexander  of  Jerusalem,  and  others,  he  lived 
till  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus.  He  wrote  an 
Admonition  to  (he  Greeks,  The  Pedagogue,  Stromafa,  and 
What  rich  man  can  be  saved  I  He  had  a  leaning  to  Gen- 
tile ethics,  and  the  merit  of  works.  On  future  pun- 
ishments he  is  erroneous. 

Church  officers  are  mentioned  incidentally;  "For  as 
much  as  we  are  shepherds,  rtoi/tsvsg  £$/mv,  who  govern 
rt^orjyovfisioi,  the  churches,  after  the  example  of  the  good 
shepherd,  and  guard  the  sheep."  a  This  pastoral  office 
was  that  of  the  presbyter,  for  he  was  such.  In  strict 
accordance  he  speaks  of  the  presbyter,  as  blessing 
with  the  imposition  of  hands.     "  Upon  whom  will  the 

»  Pedagogue,  Lib.  L  p.  99. 


OF   CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  37 

presbyter,  H£ia$v*i£o<;,  impose  his  hand,  and  whom  will 
he  bless?"  b  This  ascription  of  blessing  to  presbyters 
supposes  them  of  one  kind  and  clerical. 

After  citing  from  the  epistle  of  Paul  ten  passages 
of  practical  duties,  suited  to  various  classes,  he  ob- 
serves; "numerous  other  precepts  also,  directed  to 
select  characters,  have  been  written,  in  the  sacred 
books,  some  to  presbyters  Ttgeafivlegois,  some  to  bishops, 
and  some  to  deacons,  and  others  to  widows."0  If 
presbyters  be  not  here  taken  appellatively,  the  language 
makes  a  threefold  discrimination,  presbyters,  bishops 
and  deacons.  It  is  possible  that  the  author,  in  these 
precepts  given  from  the  New  Testament,  follows  the 
language  of  the  epistle  to  Titus,  in  which  the  same  or- 
der is  named,  presbyters  and  bishops.  (Ch.  i.  5.  6.  7.) 
That  there  were  but  two  orders,  (Siaxovai)  presbyters 
and  deacons,  he  expressly  and  repeatedly  shows;  and 
that  there  was  a  rtguloxaOsSe,™  or  first  seat,  in  each  pres- 
bytery, he  also  asserts ;  the  meaning  therefore  of  the 
passage  is  obvious. 

If  from  the  circumstance,  that  this  writer  never 
enumerated  deacons  before  presbyters,  because  an  in- 
ferior order,  it  may  be  fairly  inferred,  that  the  colloca- 
tion of  bishops  after  presbyters,  in  this  sentence,  evin- 
ces no  inferiority  in  presbyters,  we  may  be  permitted 
to  argue  from  the  same  circumstance,  that  he  had  no 
idea  that  presbyters  were  mere  laymen.  Whether,  in 
this  passage,  ft^cajivT^o^  was  intended  only  of  those 
who  presided  over  the  rest  of  the  bishops,  or  vice  versa, 
lay  presbyters  are  equally,  and  wholly  omitted. 

In  the  numerous  precepts  addressed  by  the  Scrip- 
tures to  various  characters,  neither  this  author  nor  any 
other,  has  ever  found  a  charge  directed  to  lay  pres- 
byters. 

Writing  of  marriage,  he  decides,  that  each  man 
should  be   "the    husband  of  one  wife,  whether  he 

!>    Pedagogue,  Lib.  iii.  p.  248. 
c    Pedagogue,  Lib.  iii.  p.  264. 

E 


38  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

be  a  presbyter,  or  a  deacon,  &c."   xav  /tztofivtsgos  q,  xav 

Siaxovo;  ,d 

The  word  presbyter  being  substituted  in  this  direc- 
tion, for  bishop,  used  in  Paul's  epistle,e  and  by  himself 
in  two  other  references  to  the  same  duty/  proves  that 
Clement  understood  the  same  by  bishop  and  presby- 
ter, and  could  not  have  intended  an  inferior,  or  lay  el- 
der. And  if  the  promiscuous  use  of  bishop  and  pres- 
byter can  demonstrate  a  parity  in  the  clerical,  it  must 
be  equally  effectual  to  exclude  an  inferior  order. 

In  another  place  he  observes ;  "That  man  is  in  fact 
a  presbyter,  ?tgsaj5vlt£o$,  of  the  church  and  a  true  min- 
ister, Siaxoioj,  of  the  counsel  of  God,  who  practices  and 
teaches  the  things  of  the  Lord;  deemed  righteous,  not 
because  ordained  of  men  nor  because  a  presbyter,  but 
because  a  righteous  man,  he  is  numbered  in  the  pres- 
bytery. And  if  here  on  earth  he  be  not  honoured  with 
the  first  seat,  7tpu,1oxa0e8^ca  (iri  Ti^Gy  he  shall  sit  down  on 
the  twenty  four  thrones,  judging  the  people,  as  John 
represents  it  in  the  Apocalypse. "s  This  writer  does 
not  distinguish  the  presiding  presbyter  by  the  name 
rfgo£<r?coj,  the  word  tmaxoTto;  having  begun  to  take  its 
place,  nevertheless  the  first  implied  other  seats  of  the 
presbyters;  and  the  first  seat  on  a  bench  of  presbyters 
is  occupied  by  a  presbyter,  with  no  less  certainty  than 
the  last.  This  president  called  rtgoiGtu;  in  the  New 
Testament,  is  henceforth  denominated  1*1,0x0x0;  without 
any  authorised  diversity  in  order.  In  the  same  page, 
he  says  ;  "Seeing  that  in  the  church,  there  are  promo- 
tions of  bishops,  presbyters,  deacons,  7te,oxo7tai  smoxortuv 
itgtopvQtgav  Smxovuv,  I  suppose  they  are  semblances  of 
angelic  glory,  and  of  that  economy  which,  the  Scrip- 
tures say,  awaits  those,  who  live  after  the  example  of 
the  apostles,  in  the  perfection  of  righteousness,  accord- 
ing to  the  gospel.  These,  the  apostle  writes,  being 
raised  up  in  the  clouds,  Siaxovyottv,  attend  as  deacons  at 
the  first ;  afterwards  they  are  associated  with  the  pres- 

d  Strom.  Lib.  iii.  464.  e  1  Tim.  iii.  2. 

f  Strom.  459.  472.  £  Strom.  Lib.  vi.  p.  667, 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  39 

bytery,  ^eafivl^ic,,  according  to  their  proficiency 
rt^oxoTtrjv,  in  glory ;  for  glory  rises  above  glory,  until 
they  shall  increase  to  a  perfect  man. 

h  This  writer  thought  that  the  Saviour  preached  the 
gospel  to  departed  spirits  in  hell :  and  believed,  that 
future  punishments  were  restorative.  To  the  same  hy- 
pothesis may  be  attributed  his  opinion  of  the  value  of 
the  righteousness  of  the  saints,  both  in  this  world  and 
in  the  next,  which  is  here  described  as  measuring  their 
proficiency  in  glory.  His  first  comparison  of  the  or- 
ders in  the  church,  is  unto  those  of  the  angels,  of  whom 
it  has  been  remarked,  there  are  but  two,  archangels 
and  angels.  He  supposes  also  a  discrimination  in  the 
next  world  between  the  glory  of  deacons,  and  of  the 
presbytery.  But  although  he  names  bishops,  presby- 
byters,  and  deacons  on  earth  distinctly,  he  considered 
bishops  and  presbyters,  as  constituting  the  same  pres- 
bytery, not  differing  in  order;  otherwise  his  compari- 
son has  failed.  Deacons  are  here  also  represented  as 
entering  into  the  presbytery,  without  an  intermediate 
order.  Clemens  has  consequently  assigned  no  place 
to  lay  elders,  either  in  the  church  militant,  or  triumph- 
ant. Having  spoken  of  an  instructive,  and  an  obedi- 
ential service,  he  says;  "In  like  manner  also  with  re- 
spect to  the  church,  the  presbyters  maintain  the  part 
which  renders  men  better,  fctiuolwrpi  zixma,  and  the 
deacons  the  obediential,  vjtr^flixriv.  Both  these  offices, 
tavtas  an<pu>  faj  8ia.xoi>(.a$,  do  the  angels  perform  to  God, 
according  to  the  economy  of  earthly  things."1  Thus 
again  he  expressly  describes  two,  and  but  two  orders 
in  the  church,  presbyters  and  deacons ;  the  former  to 
make  men  better,  the  latter  to  aid  in  a  subordinate  de- 
partment. 

In  this  author  we  find  a  presbytery  and  deacons  only, 
which  is  as  forcible  an  exclusion  of  a  third  order,  whe- 
ther superior  or  intermediate,  as  can  be  reasonably 

h  Strom.  Lib.  vi.  p.  667. 

»  Strom.  Lib.  vii.  p.  700.  Some  render  /HtKrialiKKV,  dignified, 
others  •*  quze  facit  meliores." 


40  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

expected  from  a  writer  who  had  no  knowledge  of  a 
third. 

In  his  "JVhat  rich  man  can  be  saved?"k  Clemens  re- 
lates that  John  the  Apostle,  observing  a  young  man 
and  turning  to  the  bishop  zvho  presided  over  all,  trfc  Haai,  ma 
xaOtaluli  rtgo^^aj  imaxoHa,  committed  him  to  his  care 
in  the  presence  of  the  church,  trti  -t^g  sxxxqaias,  who  re- 
ceived him  tov  htxopivov.  John  is  then  said  to  have  re- 
turned, after  repeating  the  charge,  to  Ephesus.  And 
the  presbyter  taking  home,  6  6a  rt§f<5j3i>7f§os  araa.aj3w  otxaSa, 
the  young  man  that  had  been  committed  to  his  care, 
nourished,  educated,  and  lost  him.  Here  we  have 
Clemens,  no  doubt  in  the  language  of  his  day,  as  it 
had  been  in  that  of  the  apostles,  expressly  denominat- 
ing the  same  person  both  a  bishop  and  ^presbyter.  Also 
John,  returning,  is  represented  to  have  addressed  him 
as  a  bishop,  "w  tTtioxoite;  return  to  us  your  deposit  "  It 
thus  appears,  that  a  successor  of  the  last  apostle,  and 
by  John  himself  styled  a  bishop,  was  notwithstanding  a 
presbyter. 

The  sum  of  the  testimony  of  Clemens,  the  most 
learned  Christian  in  his  age,  is  that  there  was  one  or- 
der only  of  officers  in  the  church,  above  that  of  the 
deacons.  He  has  not  only  not  named  subordinate,  or 
lay  presbyters,  but  has  in  the  enumerations  and  de- 
criptions,  excluded  the  possibility  of  the  existence  of 
such  an  order  in  his  day. 

Quintus  Septimius  Florens  Tertullianus,  was  born  at 
Carthage,  of  a  Roman  family;  his  father  being  a  cen- 
turion under  a  pro-consul  of  Africa.  Educated  in  the 
learning  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  becoming  a 
Christian  before  the  close  of  the  second  century,  he 
nourished  chiefly  in  the  third,  and  preached  at  Car- 
thage many  years.  Offended  at  the  unkind  treatment, 
or  at  the  irregularities  of  the  orthodox,  he  preferred 
the  severities  of  the  Montanists.  His  language  is 
harsh  and  obscene.  Speaking  in  his  apology  of  the 
worship  of  Christian  assemblies,  he  observes;  "Ap- 

k  Ch.  slii.  p.  87. 


OP   CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  41 

proved  elders  preside,  who  have  obtained  that  honor, 
not  by  price,  but  by  the  evidence  of  their  fitness."1  Aged 
men,  as  such  never  presided  in  the  church.  Also 
these  are  expressed  to  have  obtained  their  standing  by 
testimony,  and  were  consequently  chosen.  We  have 
seen  in  Justin,  that  the  eucharist  was  dispensed  by  the 
rtpoEcwoj,  -presiding  presbyter.  The  same  practice, 
though  not  mentioned  by  Clement,  is  recognised  by 
Tertullian,  his  cotemporary.  "  We  never  take  from 
the  hand  of  others,"  says  he,  "than  presidents,  de  alio- 
rum  manu  quam  presidentium,  the  sacrament  of  the  eu- 
charist, commanded  by  the  Lord,  in  the  time  of  his 
life,  to  all,  even  the  nightly  assemblies."111  In  the  same 
chapter,  he  has  used  the  Latin  word,  antistes  which  ex- 
actly corresponds  to  npotola;;  "  Being  about  to  go  to 
the  water,  but  a  little  before  it,  we  testify  in  the  church, 
in  the  presence  of  the  president,  sub  anlistitis  manu,  that  we 
renounce  the  devil,  and  his  pomp  and  angels."  That 
the  names,  Ttpoeolas,  7te,o(,ala,p£vo<;,  presses  and  antistes, 
which  had  been  used  for  the  first  presbyter  from  the 
apostolic  age,  began  to  give  place  to  the  word  trtiaxofto;, 
episcepus,  or  bishop,  is  established  by  his  exclusive  as- 
signation of  the  exercise  of  the  power  last  mentioned, 
to  the  bishop  of  every  congregation  in  the  following 
passage."  "The  highest  presbyter,  who  is  the  bishop, 
summits  sacerdos,  qui  est  episcopus,  has  the  right  of  grant- 
ing baptism,  afterwards  the  presbyters  and  deacons, 
dehinc  presbyteri  et  diaconi,  nevertheless,  not  without  the 
authority  of  the  bishop,  for  the  honor  of  the  church, 
which  being  preserved,  its  peace  is  secure;  otherwise 
the  right  is  also  with  the  laymen."  The  highest  im- 
plies inferiors  of  the  same  kind.  These  were  the  pres- 
byters, because  no  others  had  existed  at  this  period,  in 
any  Christian  church.  That  this  diversity  sprang,  not 
from  any  original  difference  in  order  or  office,  is  evi- 
dent; because  Tertullian  expressly  founds  the  superior 

'  «*  President  probati  quique  seniores,  honorem  istum  non  pre* 
tio  sed  testimonio  adepti." — Afiol.  c.  39. 
m  De  Corona,  chap.  3,  p.  341. 
n  Opera  Tertulliani  a  Sender,  vol.  iv.  p.  203. 
e2 


42  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

authority  of  bishops,  upon  its  necessity  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  honour  and  peace  of  the  church,  and  not 
upon  any  scriptural  or  apostolical  ordination  or  ap- 
pointment. Here  are  no  lay-presbyters;  yet  the  expe- 
diency alleged  for  degrading  presbyters  by  a  transfer 
of  a  part  of  their  original  authority  to  a  presiding 
presbyter,  bears  some  affinity  to  that,  which  is  now 
made  the  excuse  for  conferring  on  elders  the  place  and 
station  of  deacons  in  the  church.  The  terms,  "next 
the  presbyters  and  deacons"  imply  that  baptism  was  not 
originally  proper,  only  to  the  presiding  elder;  but  the 
peace  of  the  church  appears  to  have  been  disturbed  by 
the  rivalship  of  presbyters,  whose  power  of  baptizing 
had  been  made  an  engine  of  raising  adherents,  and 
promoting  divisions.  The  peace  of  the  church  re- 
quired that  it  should  be  under  the  direction  of  the  pres- 
bytery in  every  congregation,  and  be  performed  by  the 
presiding  presbyter,  or  by  some  other  for  him.  If  the 
original  power  of  these  presbyters,  which  expediency 
only  suspended,  authorized  their  administration  of  or- 
dinances, they  were  not  lay  elders.  The  implied  con- 
cession of  a  power  in  deacons  to  do  the  same  things, 
and  the  position,  that  the  right  existed  in  laymen,  show, 
not  merely  that,  had  there  been  lay-presbyters,  they 
might  have  baptized,  but  that  the  presbyters  spoken  of, 
were  not  laymen. 

He  expresses  his  opinion,  "That  the  authority  of 
the  church  appointed,  con st it u it,  the  difference  between 
the  order  and  the  people,  inter  ordinem  et  plebem."0  But 
that  authority  he  must  have  understood  to  have  been 
exercised  in  the  days  of  the  apostles;  for  he  chal- 
lenges the  heretics  to  prove  their  doctrine  by  uninter- 
rupted tradition,  through  successive  bishops  from  the 
apostles ;  by  which  bishops,  and  the  other  presbyters, 
he  must  have  meant  the  order  of  which  he  has  spoken 
in  the  singular.  "Let  them  show  the  commencements 
of  their  churches — let  them  tell  the  series  of  their  bish- 
ops, so  descending  by  succession  from  the  beginning, 

o    Opera  Tertulliani  a  Semler,  vol.  iii.  p.  119. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  43 

that  the  first  bishop  shall  have  had  some  author  or  pre- 
decessor from  the  apostles,  or  apostolic  men,  who  con- 
tinued constantly  with  the  apostles;  for  in  this  manner 
the  apostolic  churches  deduced  their  own  genealogies; 
thus  the  church  of  Smyrna,  having  Polycarp,  relate 
that  he  was  located  there  by  John;  thus  the  church  of 
Rome,  having  Clement,  put  forth  that  he  was  ordained 
by  Peter;  in  the  same  manner,  also,  other  churches 
present  those  whom,  placed  in  the  episcopacy  by  the 
apostles,  they  account  the  propagators  of  the  apostolic 
cion."P  The  originality  of  doctrines  was  to  be  proved 
by  that  of  the  churches;  and  this  could  be  shown  by 
the  successions  of  the  presiding  officers. 

The  preservation  of  the  names  and  successions  of 
all  the  presbyters  for  a  century,  might  have  been  im- 
practicable ;  yet  the  strength  of  the  argument  for  the 
sameness  of  doctrines,  chiefly  depended  upon  this  cir- 
cumstance, that  the  presbytery  of  each  church,  at  any 
given  period,  secured  the  orthodoxy  of  each  succes- 
sive rtpo£u7wj,  presiding,  presbyter,  whom  Tertullian  de- 
nominates bishop. 

Inveighing  against  the  irregularities  of  the  heretics, 
he  observes, "One  is  the  bishop  to  day,  to-morrow,  an- 
other, alius  hodie  episcopus,  eras  alius;  to  day  he  is  a  dea- 
con, who  is  a  reader  to-morrow,  hodie  diaconus,  qui 
eras  lector;  to-day  a  presbyter,  who  is  a  layman  to- 
morrow, hodie  presbyter,  qui  eras  laicus;  for  they  also 
impose  sacerdotal  functions  on  the  laity."  Individual 
assemblies  are  here  the  allusion,  as  in  all  other  parts  of 
his  writings;  if  one  to-day  acted  as  the  bishop  in  pub- 
lic worship,  and  to-morrow  another,  it  must  have  been 
intended  of  one  man's  leading  in  the  ordinances  on  one 
day,  and  another  on  the  next,  which  is  no  more  than  the 
office  of  the  rtposolus, president;  except  that  with  heretics, 
the  duty  belonged  to  no  one  permanently.  This  pas- 
sage also  proves,  that  reading  was  no  part  of  the  dea- 
con's office;  that  elders  were  not  laymen;  and  that 

p  lb.  vol.  ii.  p.  39. 


44  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,    &C. 

the  latter  ought  not  to  have  performed  clerical  duties  in 
the  church. 

When  arguing  the  truth  of  the  common  doctrines 
against  Marcion,  from  their  priority,  after  mentioning 
the  churches  of  Corinth,  Galatia,  Philippic  Thessalon- 
ica,  Ephesus  and  Rome,  he  observes,  "we  have  also  the 
churches  nourished,  alumnas,  of  John ;  for  if  Marcion 
rejects  also  his  Apocalypse,  nevertheless,  the  series  of 
the  bishops,  ordo  iamen  episcoporum,  reckoned  up  to 
their  commencement,  will  stand  upon  John  their  foun- 
der. In  the  same  manner  also,  the  genuieness  of  the 
other  churches  is  recognized."  The  enumerations  of 
the  presiding  presbyters,  which  have  formerly  occur- 
red, render  this  passage  perfectly  clear,  and  vastly 
different  from  the  modern  import  of  the  phrase  order 
of  bishops.  He  sometimes  also  means  by  ordo,  the  bench 
of  presbyters  which  sat  in  every  organized  church. 
"Ubi  ecclesiastici  ord'mis  non  est  consessas,  where  there  is  • 
not  a  presbytery,  offers  et  tingis,  you  administer  the  eu- 
charist,  and  baptize,  &c."i  This  is  the  piain  testimony 
of  Tertullian,r  that  there  was  but  one  kind  of  ecclesi- 
astics in  every  church,  who  were  called  an  order,  be- 
cause they  sat  in  a  row;  of  these  there  was  one,  who 
by  custom,  from  the  apostle's  days,  presided;  and  the 
series  of  such  presidents,  up  to  the  apostles,  was  also 
denominated  the  order  of  the  bishops  of  that  particular 
congregation;  but  we  have  not  found  a  word  con- 
cerning lay-presbyters,  in  all  his  writings. 

q  lb.  vol.  iii.  p.  119. 

r  The  piece  on  the  Trinity  appearing  among1  the  works  ascribed 
to  Tertullian,  has  been  referred  by  Jerom  to  Novatian,  who  lived 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  In  like  manner  the 
treatise  on  Jewish  meats,  among  the  works  of  Tertullian,  is  ascribed 
to  Novatian;  and  also  the  30th  letter  in  the  works  of  Cyprian. 
Neither  Novatian  nor  Hilary,  the  deacon,  are  accounted  authors, 
their  writings  having  been  incorrectly  assigned  to  others. 


SECTION  VI. 

Ignatius  wrote  epistles;  the  Latin  are  given  up,  and  the  larger  Greek  gene* 
rally:  the  smaller  are  liable  to  many  objections. —  They  sustain  not  the  cha- 
racter given  by  Polycarp,  were  opposed  to  Arianism,  which  was  long  after 
his  day;  differ  in  style;  were  written  when  the  governvient  was  parochial 
episcopacy. — The  word  i7rt<rx.07rcs  had  not  been  substituted  for  7r  pot  ft  tt{ 
in  the  days  of  the  martyr,  as  these,  letters  represent. —  The  writer's  principal 
object  was  to  enhance  the  power  of  parochial  bishops,  which  had  not  commenc- 
ed then. — They  allege  he  saw  Christ,  which  would  make  him  too  old  in 
116  to  have  walked  and  acted  as  described. —  There  is  mention  of  an  error, 
which  arose  long  after  his  martyrdom.  —  Tlieir  description  of  the  church  as 
Catholic,  the  worship  as  at  an  altar,  and  in  a  temple,  and  the  bread  as  if 
transubstantiated,  are  arguments  against  them. — Other  objections. 

That  Ignatius  was  sentenced  by  Trajan,  whilst  at 
Antioch  on  his  way  to  the  East,  in  his  fourth  year, 
A.  D.  116,  to  be  carried  to  Rome,  and  there  given  to 
wild  beasts,  which  was  accordingly  done,  is  sufficient- 
ly certain.  The  account  of  his  martyrdom,  which 
has  been  defended  as  ancient  and  authentic,  disagrees 
with  the  relation  Eusebius  has  given  of  his  progress 
to  Rome.  The  former  declares  that  he  sailed  from 
Seleucia  to  Smyrna,  thence  to  Troas,  and  from  thence 
to  Neapolis.  The  latter  relates  that  he  passed  through 
Asia,  and  confirmed  the  congregations  throughout 
every  city  where  he  came,  preaching  the  word  of 
God,  &c.  Whoever  compares  the  seven  larger  Greek 
epistles  which  bear  the  name  of  Ignatius,  with  the  ac- 
count which  Eusebius  has  given  of  the  epistles  of  that 
apostolic  father,  will  find  such  an  agreement  as  will 
establish  a  strong  probability  that  they  are  the  same. 
Yet  this  argument  is  nearly  the  same  in  favor  of 
the  smaller  which  are  chiefly  preferred.  The  Latin 
epistles,  and  the  larger  Greek  ones,  are  now  generally, 
if  not  universally  given  up.     The  larger  epistles  are 


46  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

evidently  tinctured  with  Arian  opinions,  which  Euse- 
bius  held.  His  approbation  of  the  epistles  which  he 
had,  is  some  evidence  that  they  were  the  larger  ones. 
The  question  is,  whether  those  letters,  which  Eusebius 
saw,  were  genuine  epistles  of  that  martyr.  If  the 
larger  be  claimed,  their  Arianism  militates  against 
their  genuineness ;  if  the  smaller,  their  opposition  to 
that  doctrine  must  equally  prove  them  supposititious. 
The  writings  of  twelve  Christian  fathers,  all  born  after 
the  death  of  Ignatius,  and  dead  before  the  birth  of 
Eusebius,  have  reached  our  times.  Clemens  Roma- 
nus  died  before  Ignatius;  Polycarp  survived  him  long. 
His  letter  to  the  Philippians  appears  perfectly  in  cha- 
racter for  that  excellent  man,  and  entirely  consistent 
with  the  circumstances  of  his  day,  and  the  condition 
of  the  churches.  That  letter  does  mention  letters  of 
Ignatius,  but  except  the  message  to  the  people  of  An- 
tioch,  the  description  of  their  contents  by  Polycarp, 
as  those  "  from  which  the  Philippians  would  be  able  to 
derive  great  advantage,  as  containing  faith  and  pa- 
tience, and  all  that  edification  which  brings  us  to  our 
Lord,"a  is  greatly  different  from  the  tenor  of  those 
which  are  now  offered  to  the  world. 

That  which  purports  to  have  been  written  toPoly- 
carp  differs  in  style,  but  accords  with  the  strain  of  the 
other  six,  the  obvious  design  and  the  main  scope  of 
which,  were  to  enhance  clerical  authority  and  popu- 
lar subjugation ;  evils  of  a  date  long  after  the  clays  of 
Ignatius.  Speaking  to  the  people  through  Polycarp, 
he  is  made  to  say,  "  Attend  unto  the  bishop,  that  God 
may  also  to  you  ;  my  soul  for  theirs,  who  shall  be  sub- 
ject to  the  bishop,  presbyters,  and  deacons."b  We 
should  have  expected  from  the  venerable  martyr,  on 

a  E£  a>v  utyAXat.  &><|>e\»9>!V*/  Svvncno-S-t.  Tiipie^overt  y*p  7rt<rltv  xu 
VTrofAOVMVj  nui   7ra.tra.y    ctx.oSo/u>iv   thv    us  tov  x-vpttv   xfAaiv    ttvitKOVcrttv. 

b  §  6.  Ta>  iVK7K07ns,  7rpc<ri%ili,  tru  itou  o  6ioc  vy.iv,  Avlt-^v^ov  tyce 
tm  vTroldLo-o-ofAtvcev  t&>  t7rto-K07ra>  7rpto-0ultpia>  Sta.Ka.vots.  In  the  larger 
epistle  it  is  npio-&\j\ipia.  x.a.1  ita.Kovots-  The  Latin  translator  has 
rendered  Avli^uyey  unanimis,  but  that  is  the  force  of  the  word 
ofco-^vxat.  The  English  translation  has,  "  My  soul  be  for  theirs," 
&c. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  47 

his  way  to  the  amphitheatre,  where  he  was  to  be 
eaten  by  wild  beasts,  that  he  should  have  breathed 
far  other  language.  Eusebius  has  mentioned  a  quo- 
tation by  Irenasus  of  a  sentiment,  which  is  found 
in  the  letter  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  Igna- 
tius to  the  Romans."  Irenasus  mentions  not  the  name 
of  Ignatius,  but  says  :  "  As  one  of  ours,  adjudged  to 
wild  beasts  for  his  testimony  unto  God,  said."  Ire- 
nasus's  book  was  written  more  than  a  hundred  years, 
and  the  expression  of  Ignatius,  as  spoken  or  written, 
two  hundred  before  the  time  when  Eusebius  wrote. 
This  was  probably  the  evidence  by  which  this  credu- 
lous historian  received  those  letters.  If  he  had  had 
other  proofs,  he  would  probably  have  given  them. 
But  there  existed  prior  to  his  day,  in  the  writings  of 
Origen  also  a  proof,  which  extends  further  than  the 
passage  in  Irenasus,  inasmuch  as  it  both  mentions  the 
name  of  Ignatius,  and  gives  a  sentiment  which  is 
found  in  that  epistle,  which  is  directed  to  the  Ephe- 
sians.d  Thus  Irenasus  and  Origen  in  these  scanty 
references  to  the  venerable  martyr  Ignatius,  furnished, 
as  far  as  we  know,  all  the  foundation  upon  which 
those  seven  epistles,  which  may  have  existed  in  the 
days  of  Eusebius,  could  have  then  claimed  to  be  those 
mentioned  by  Polycarp.6    If  false  men  have  produced 

c  §4.  S/72C  itftl  tou  S"aoy  mtl  Si  ofovltev  S-jjp/aiv  d.Xnd-0/uai  ita. 
je»8apoj  a  flat  (Siou,  iji  the  larger  epistle)  tvpe&*  (tou  %_pt<?lov  is  not 
in  Iremeus.  lam  God's  grain,  and  am  (now  to  be)  ground  by  the 
teeth  of  wild  beasts,  that  I  may  be  proved  to  be  the  pure  bread  (of 
Christ.) 

d  Km,  exaflsSe  rov  ctp%6vr&  Toy  ettaivoc  toutgu  »  TttpBtvia.  Mctptttc, 
&c.  (6th  horn,  on  Luke,  Compar.  with  Ep.  ad  Ephes.  §  19.) 
And  the  virginity  of  Mary  was  hidden  from  the  ruler  of  this  world. 
Also  Origen  quoted  the  words,  'O  euoc  ipa>;  'itrTAvpaorxi,  Ad. 
Rom.  §  7. 

e  Feeble  as  this  evidence  is,  which  establishes  no  more  than  that, 
if  a  forgery,  it  was  committed  prior  to  the  time  in  which  Eusebius 
wrote  his  Ecclesiastical  History.  It  might  pass  unsuspected,  if  the 
strain  of  the  letters  suited  the  character  of  the  martyr,  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  churches  in  his  day.  They  do  evince  that  they  were 
written  before  the  diocesan  episcopacy  was  introduced;  and  in  this 
they  establish  a  claim  of  antiquity,  but  other  circumstances  place 
them  after  the  period  they  arrogate  to  themselves. 


48  THE   PRIMITIVE   GOVERNMENT 

other  letters  of  Ignatius,  written  to  Tarsus,  Antioch, 
Hiero,  Mary,  and  two  to  John;  and  enlarged  the 
seven,  now  under  consideration  ;  or,  as  some  think, 
abridged  the  large  ones,  to  become  what  are  now 
contended  for,  and  corrected  with  excessive  liberality, 
the  presumption  arising  from  the  integrity  of  our 
race,  that  these  are  the  original  letters  of  Ignatius,  is 
exceedingly  imbecile.  The  word  bishop  {170,0x0*0$} 
was  not  used  to  distinguish  the  president  (rcpoiotos)  or 
messenger  (oyysxo?)  in  the  respective  churches  from  the 
other  presbyters  (rtpeopvtspot,)  who  were  equally  bishops 
(frtKjxorfot,)  till  long  after  the  death  of  Ignatius.  Yet 
these  letters  impute  to  this  pious  martyr  an  ardent 
zeal  for  the  authority  of  the  bishop  (1*10x0x0;)  and  al- 
ways subordinate  the  presbyter s  to  him.  This  also 
appears  to  have  been  more  at  heart  with  the  writer 
than  any  other  subject.  Nor  can  a  reader  fail  to  dis- 
cern the  striking  contrast  between  them  and  the  letter 
of  Polycarp  before  cited;  not  only  in  the  particular 
last  mentioned,  but  in  the  general  scope  and  tendency, 
and  in  the  breathing  of  humility  and  piety,  conspicu- 
ous throughout  the  latter.  There  are  other  particular 
grounds  of  objection  appearing  in  these  letters,  which 
ought  not  to  pass  unobserved.  In  the  epistle  to  the 
Christians  at  Smyrna,  he  says,  "For  I  also  after  his," 
Christ's  "  resurrection,"  "  saw  him  in  the  flesh,  and 
believe  he  exists."1"  This  is  at  variance  with  the 
opinion,  that  Ignatius  was  blessed  by  the  Saviour  when 
an  infant.^  For  if  then  an  infant,  he  could  not  have 
witnessed  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  We  may  admit 
he  was  given  to  wild  boasts,  A.  D.  116,  for  the  reasons 

f  §  3.  Eyu,  yap  x,ai  fxira.  r»v  avatrTatriv,  tv  o-apx.1  eLurov  iiSov,  x.a.t 
7117111)011  ovta-  If,  instead  of  aSov,  be  read  oiS'a,  it  may  then  be, 
"i"  know  that  after  the  resurrection  he  was  in  the  flesh,  and  believe 
that  he  is  so."  But  why  shoidd  lie  have  written  to  those  who  had 
the  same  testimony  from  the  apostles,  of  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
which  he  professed;  and  why  say  that  he  knew  it,  when  it  was  a 
matter  of  belief?  But  if  he  had  seen  him,  it  was  proper  to  assert 
the  fact. 

g  lyvaiiov  ov  in  vhttiiv,  cvra.  »c  a,7rx~ouv  kai  ax.ipa.iov  ivSwivv/utvec, 
tijuv  ittisyis  muvetyovoiTo,  &c.     Nicephorus,  vol.  i,  p.  192. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  49 

assigned  by  Pearson,  Smith,  and  others ;  and  if  he 
was  twenty  years  of  age  at  the  resurrection  of  Christ, 
which  is  supposing  him  to  have  been  as  young  as  can 
well  be  admitted  for  such  a  testimony,  then  he  was 
not  such  an  infant,  but  must  have  been  one  hundred 
and  two  years  old  when  he  walked  from  Antioch  to 
Seleucia,  and  sailed  to  Smyrna,  where  he  wrote  four 
of  those  letters,  and  from  thence  to  Troas,  where  he 
wrote  this  letter,  that  to  Polycarp,  and  another  to  the 
Philadelphians,  and  from  thence  sailed  to  Neapolis, 
from  whence  he  went  on  foot  across  Macedonia  unto 
the  Adriatic.  These  labors  appear  inconsistent  with 
the  truth  of  the  fact  of  his  having  seen  Christ  after 
his  resurrection.  And  if  Eusebius  and  Chrysostom 
are  correct  in  saying  that  he  travelled  as  a  convict 
through  Asia,  preaching  and  comforting  the  churches, 
the  difficulty  is  greatly  enhanced.  Chrysostom  wrote 
since  Eusebius,  has  given  us  a  long  eulogy  on  the 
piety  and  death  of  Ignatius,  through  twelve  folio  half 
pages,  and  detailed  his  labors ;  yet  never  once  has  he 
mentioned  any  of  his  letters.  But  Dupin  thinks  there 
is,  in  one  place,  half  a  line  which  has  been  taken  from 
the  letter  to  the  Romans.  If  he  accredited  those  let- 
ters, why  did  he  pass  them  in  silence  '?  Many  of  the 
terms  used  in  them  appear  to  be  of  later  adoption  than 
the  days  of  the  venerable  martyr.  The  church  is  de- 
nominated catholic,  (xaeoux7j)  the  place  of  worship  is 
uaoj,  a  temple,  where  there  is  sv  §voiaotqpiov,  one  altar, 
and  it  is  affirmed  ir^v  tv^aptattap  aapxa  sivat,  tov  trwT'^poj 
tj[j.u>v   \rj60v.       XptcTT'OD   tftjv    ortsp    a^ttapi'icoi'  rtjA.uv  TiaOovaqv,  that 

ike  eucharist  is  thejlesh  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  which 
suffered  for  our  sins ;  and  also  to  be  the  bread  of  God, 
apros  tov  9sov.  But  the  favorite  and  predominant  ex- 
pression appears  to  be,  urtoTUsfTEoflat  tq>  ertiaxorec),  to  be 
in  subjection  unto  the  bishop,  to  which  is  also  added, 
<aj  ^apiT't  dtov,  as  to  the  grace  of  God. 

There  appears  in  the  letter  to  the  Trallians  an  ex- 
ample of  proud  boasting,  badly  accordant  both  with 
the  character  and  circumstances  of  the  aged  martyr 

F 


60  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

on  his  way  to  execution.11  "  Am  not  I  able  to  write 
to  you  heavenly  things?  But  I  fear  that  I  should  do 
you  an  injury,  being  infants  ;  and,  pardon  me,  lest,  not 
being  able  to  swallow,  you  should  be  strangled.  For 
I  also,  not  as  though  I  am  bound,  am  able  even  to 
write  (ypa^cu)  heavenly  things,  and  the  local  dispositions 
of  the  angels,  and  the  companies  under  the  princes, 
and  things  visible  and  things  invisible."  Christ's  ap- 
pearance to  Paul  after  his  resurrection,  and  Paul's 
rapture  and  sight  of  what  it  was  not  allowed  him  to 
describe,  seem  to  be  the  things  here  imitated,  but  the 
knowledge  which  Ignatius  boasted,  exceeds  any 
claimed  by  the  apostle. 

It  has  been  often  objected  to  these  letters,  that  there 
is  a  denial  in  that  to  the  Magnesians,  that  Jesus 
Christ  proceeded  from  Sige ;  which  had  been  affirmed 
by  Valentinus  some  time  after  the  martyrdom  of  Igna- 
tius. The  words  of  the  letters  are,  "  Seeing  there  is 
one  God,  who  manifested  himself  by  Jesus  Christ  his 
son,  who  is  his  eternal  Word,  not  proceeding  from 
Sige,  who  in  all  things  pleased  him  who  sent  him."1 
Irenaeus  and  Tertullian,  who  wrote  against  the  follow- 
ers of  Valentinus,  both  show  that  he  held  Sige  to  be 
one  of  his  first  duad,  from  whom  mediately  Christ 
came.  Also,  that  Valentinus  began  his  fanciful  modi- 
fications of  the  heresy  of  the  Gnostics  almost  half  a 
century  after  the  death  of  Ignatius,  is  indubitable.k  It 
has  been  answered  that  Sige  (sile/tce)  was  meant  ap~ 

h  §  5.  Mm  ov  SuvdLfAdLi  Td.  tTrovpwl*.  ypsL-^zt;  tthxa,  <po@ovp.ctt  ju» 
iHTriote  ovs-tv  v/ulv  fi\*fi»v  7rctpa.Qci.  Km  <rvyyva>/xoviiri  y.01,  fxn7r»Tt 
ov  JvvHbivrec  ya>p>tcr*.i  <r/rp£yyxxov&>irt  (o-Tfst^axaS'tiTS  in  the  larger 
letter.)  K«/  yap  %ya>  ov  xxBorl  SiSe/Wt,  x.2.1  Suvn/uzvoe  to.  i7rovpxvtz, 
x.x.1  tx;  TOTroBio-tct;  tscs-  ayytxixctc.  x.a.1  t«  o-vQ-rxo-iicr  teic.  ctp^ivrixeif 
opcLTctriKcti  'xopct.TtL.  Whiston  joins  ov  with  JvvctfAtvoc,  am  not  able; 
but  then  these  words  contradict  those  which  precede  them,  and 
also  the  larger  epistle,  which  here  adds  his  knowledge  "  of  the 
magnificence  of  the  iEons,  and  of  the  incomparable  majesty  of 
Almighty  God." 

i  §  8. — Ot«  a;  &ios  to-rtv  0  <p3.vtpceo-ct.t;  tuvrov  Slot  \»aov  X|/<ttou  to* 
vtou  xvrov,  0;  (0-Tiv  olvtov  xoyos  cttStog  ovx,  ct7ro  viyns  7rpoi\Sosvt  0;  x«t» 
watyT*  tv»pio-T>io-iv  tcu  7rt/u-^*.vrl  avrov, 

k  Vide  Irenacus,  lib.  iii.  c.  iv,  Euseb.  Hist.  lib.  iv.  c.  2.  Nice- 
pkorus,  lib.  iv.   c.  3. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  51 

pellatively.  But  this  is  not  satisfactory.  It  has  been 
also  asserted  that  the  Gnostics  had  the  same  error 
before  Valentinus.  But  the  correctness  of  this  we 
have  never  found.  There  is  a  passage  in  Eusebius 
which  has  been  brought  to  show  that  he  referred 
Sige  to  Simon  Magus,  but  the  better  opinion  is,  that 
he  speaks  of  Marcellus's  Sige,  as  derived  from  Valen- 
tinus, and  agrees  with  Epiphanius,  who  affirms  that 
Marcellus  took  his  yEons  from  that  arch-heretic  of 
the  second  century,  which  is  also  credible,  because 
Simon  Magus  was  dead  long  before  his  day.  This 
objection  might  appear  enough,  but  it  is  amply  sup- 
ported by  its  coincidence  with  many  others. 

The  larger  copy  is  generally  and  deservedly  aban- 
doned as  tumid  with  interpolations,  and  savoring  of 
Arianism.  Yet  there  are  expressions  in  the  smaller, 
how  justifiable  soever  in  point  of  doctrine,  which 
would  not  have  been  so  frequently  reiterated,  and 
with  so  much  point,  by  any  writer  before  the  days  of 
Arius.     Thus  Ad  Smyrnm.  s.  1.  Ao|af«  iijaovv  xpls*°v> 

■tov  6sov,  &C.  S.  10.  wj  8'axavouj  %pistov  6eoi>.  Ad  Ephes. 
Praet.  Ev  BiXr^iatt  tov  rtafpoj,  xai  I^jod  ^ptafov,  tov  Oiov 
Tjfiiop.      S.    1.     ev   ao/xatv     6sov.      S.    7.    £V    crapsa   yevofisvo^   #£Oj. 

s.  18.  Dyap  fooj  ijftwv  I^ffouj  o  ^pcj^oj,  &c.  Ad.  Trail,  s.  7". 
Ssov  lijaov  ^ptorw.  Ad  Rom.  Praef.  I^crou  ^jhot'oij,  tov  Otov 
qpuv.    ibid,    iv   I^tfoi;  ^pitftfto,    tc*    Osui  rjfiiLv.    S.   S.    O  yap    Osos 

tyiuv  Iqdovs  zpf>s*os,  &c.  Because  Whiston  has  utterly 
failed  in  his  efforts  to  sustain  the  larger  epistles  and 
the  pseudo-apostolic  constitutions  which  President 
Dwight  justly  pronounces  "  a  miserable  forgery — in 
the  latter  end  of  the  fourth,  or  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century,"  it  by  no  means  follows  that  the  above 
and  other  passages,  which  lie  has  noted  in  the  smaller 
epistles,  are  not  strong  proofs  that  those  letters  were 
written  long  after  the  days  of  Ignatius. 

That  Ignatius  wrote  letters  is  true,  if  the  passage  to 
that  effect  in  Polycarp's  letter  be  not  an  interpolation. 
But  the  genuineness  of  these  letters  appears  to  be 
without  any  sufficient  support  prior  to  the  fourth  cen- 
tury.    That  either  the  smaller  or  larger  ones  existed 


52  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

when  Eusebius  wrote,  is  credible,  but  to  what  inter- 
polations and  alterations  they  may  have  been  since 
subjected,  is  not  known.  If  we  place  them  in  the  third 
century,  near  its  commencement,  their  existence  is 
then  admitted  to  have  been  an  hundred  years  prior  to 
the  evidence  furnished  by  Eusebius,  and  their  language 
and  subject  matter  will  be  freed  from  the  many  other- 
wise insurmountable  objections  which  have  been  so 
often  brought  against  them. 

Those  to  the  churches  at  Ephesus,  Magnesia, 
Tralles,  Rome,  Philadelphia,  and  Smyrna,  and  another 
to  Polycarp,  seven  only,  out  of  fifteen,  are  now  thought 
to  claim  any  attention. 

That  parochial  episcopacy  which  they  inculcate.-, 
even  to  indiscretion,  determines  them,  at  the  earliest, 
to  the  third  century,  when  the  rtposolas,  or  presiding 
elder,  had  monopolized  the  name  bishop ;  and  the  tacit 
concession  of  their  scriptural  title  had  produced  a 
partial  surrender  of  the  episcopal  authority  of  presby- 
ters, under  the  plausible  pretext  of  securing  the  honor 
and  peace  of  the  church.  But  these  epistles  discover 
only  a  diversity  in  degree,  not  order ;  some  change 
in  government,  none  in  ordination.  They  were  indi- 
vidual churches,  in  each  of  which  there  were  a  bishop, 
of  less  power  than  a  modern  pastor,  a  presbytery,  and 
deacons. 

The  letter  to  the  Ephesians  represents  them  con- 
vening, frtt  to  avto,  unto  the  same  place,  at  the  same  time, 
or  for  the  same  purpose  as  a  single  church.  Their 
bishop,  Onesimus,  was,  in  the  impious  language 
of  the  letter,  to  be  respected  as  the  Lord  himself, 
"  coj  autoi'  T'of  Kt'^toi/  Set,  7tpoG$%tTt£iv.^  Their  presbytery 
was  worthy  of  God !  v/xu>v  rtgeofivtce,i-ov  tov  Ocov  altov ',  and 
if  that  duty  be  chiefly  important  which  is  most  en- 
joined in  these  letters,  the  reverence  of  God  must  give 
place  to  clerical  aggrandizement. 

The  uniform  representation  of  a  bishop,  presbyters, 
and  deacons,  in  a  single  church,  accords  with  the 
state  of  things  in  this  century.  The  observation,  that 
it  is  good  to  teach,  if  the  teacher  practices  accordingly, 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  53 

directed  to  the  Ephesian  Christians,  in  the  absence  of 
their  bishop,  implies  that  the  presbyters  were  teachers; 
and  is  corroborated  by  the  commendation  of  the  silence 
of  their  bishop,  "  <rty«i/7a  srtuixortov,"  otherwise  culpable. 
An  inculcation  of  obedience  to  the  bishop  and  presbytery, 

tvi    -to    iitaxovsiv     fyiaj      t^    t7i(,6xori^    xat,     *9    Het6^vtte,i<^, 

however  singular  it  would  have  appeared  in  the  age 
of  the  martyr,  discovers  in  such  a  writer  the  necessity 
of  yielding  to  the  public  notoriety  of  the  sameness  of 
the  order,  even  at  the  period  of  the  forgery. 

The  church  of  Magnesia,  in  Asia,  is  also  represented 
as  a  single  congregation,  worshipping  in  one  place, 
and  by  one  supplication.  In  language  approaching 
profaneness,  this  letter  describes  Damas,  who  was  in 
danger  of  being  despised  on  account  either  of  youth 
or  stature,  as  the  bishop  presiding  in  the  place  of  God, 
ttpoxaOripevov  *ov  srtttfxortoi)  ti?  toitov  @tov ;  the  presbyters,  in 
place  of  a  session  of  apostles,  tav  jtpto^v1te,uv  «f  tonov 
ffuvfSptov  tiav  artoalohcov ;  and  the  deacons,  as  entrusted  with 
the  service  of  Jesus  Christ,  tav  Siaxov^v  7tsftia7tviA.cvoiv 
Siaxoviav  iqvov  XpKj7ov.  The  word  rtpoxaOrjfitvov  is,  lite- 
rally, occupying  the  first  seat,  which,  being  of  the  same 
kind  with  that  of  the  presbyters  who  sat  with  him, 
implies  that  their  order  was  the  same.  Aiaxoviav, 
though  rendered  ministry,  is  no  stronger  than  Siaxovo^. 
If  these  presbyters  were  successors  of  the  apostles, 
and  the  pastor  denominated  the  bishop,  and  compared 
to  God  himself,  was  of  the  same  order,  they  were  not 
laymen.  At  Tralles,  the  church  were  advised,  in  the 
language  of  modern  idolatry,  to  respect  the  deacons, 
Siaxovovs,  and  the  bishop  even  as  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  the 
Son  of  the  Father,  coj  Inflow  XptcwW  oj  xat,  top  frtiaxortov, 
ovta  'vtov  t'od  lla7poj,  and  the  presbyters  as  a  council  of 
God,  and  a  college  of  apostles,  -tovg  8e  rtpsafivtepov;  coj  ewe- 
Spiov  ®eov,  xo.i  awSiapov  artovloxtw.  "He  that,  without  the 
bishop,  presbytery,  and  deacons,  does  any  thing,  ttpaasuv  to, 
is  not  pure  in  his  conscience.  It  becomes  you,  every  indi- 
vidual, and  especially  the  presbyters,  to  cherish,  aio^v^EH', 
the  bishop,  to  the  honor  of  the  Father  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
of  the  apostles.  After  the  valediction,  subjection  to  the. 
f2 


54  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

bishop,  as  by  command,  <oj  *ji  tviox^^  is  enjoined,  and  in 
like  manner  also  to  the  presbytery.  This,  in  like  manner, 
(ytotos  xav  t(?  n^ofivita^,  discovers  that  the  presbytery 
were  not  included  in  the  ittolaaaoixevot,,  or  subjection  to 
the  bishop,  as  were  the  people  to  the  bishop  and  pres- 
bytery :  another  proof  that  the  presbyters  were  not 
laymen. 

The  letter  to  the  church  at  Rome,  dated  at  Smyrna, 
is  a  violation  of  the  sixth  precept  of  the  law,  repre- 
senting it  to  be  easy  for  them  to  do  what  they  pleased, 

lvpw  yap  iv%ipf{  zoliv  'o  Qshtle  rfouyaat,  but  injurious  to  him, 

if  they  should  spare  him:  He  was  sure  of  death,  if 
they  would  consent.  This  letter  bears  little  resem- 
blance, except  in  weakness,  to  the  rest,  and  was  pro- 
bably the  work  of  some  third  Ignatius. 

The  letter  to  the  church  at  Philadelphia,  in  Asia 
Proper,  from  Troas,  may  be  imputed  to  the  writer 
of  the  three  first.  It  represents  Ignatius  to  have 
spoken  in  the  church  at  Philadelphia,  with  a  great 

VOlCe,  t'oj  i7ttaxor((ji  7tpocsi%ilE,  xat  -tip  rtpf a$vt fpi9  xai  Siaxovois, 

adhere  to  the  bishop,  the  presbytery,  and  the  deaco?is.  It  was 
thought  that  he  had  foi'eseen  a  division  of  the  people, 
but  he  calls  God  to  witness,  that  the  Spirit  spake,  To  8« 
Ttvsvfia  Bxypvcscsiv,  saying  these  things:  "Do  nothing  with- 
out your  bishop,  <^*C."   %syiov  -tab's  ;   ^copts  -tov  irti6x07tov   /xijSiv 

ftoisits,  &c.  The  position  is  unsound,  the  inspiration 
at  best  a  delusion,  and  the  oath  a  falsehood,  of  all 
which  the  pious  Ignatius  was  probably  clear.  But 
we  are  concerned  at  present  only  with  the  fact,  that 
there  were,  at  the  period  of  this  forgery,  no  lay 
elders. 

The  letter  to  the  church  at  Smyrna,  from  Troas, 
resembles  the  last  and  the  three  first.  This  church 
was  also  a  single  assembly,  oxov  av  $avri  co  170.1x07*0$,  txtt 
'to  TfKrftos  salu>,  wheresoever  the  bishop  may  appear,  there  let 
the  multitude  be.  The  same  extravagant  comparisons 
are  here  reiterated:  Let  all  foil  w  the  bishop,  as  Jesus 
Christ  does  the  Father,  and  the  presbytery  as  apostles; 
and  lc!  them  reverence  the  deacons,  as  the  command-ment  of 
God.     Let  that  eucharist  be  accounted  valid,  which  is  by 


OP     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  55 

the  bishop,  or  by  him  whom  he  shall  appoint,  txnvri  fitfiaia, 
iVZaQLolux   T]yit69a,    rj    vrto   -tov    trtiixortov   ov$a,   r\  q>    av    av7oj 

tttrtptty.  Whilst  this  delegation  of  authority  shows 
the  late  period  of  the  letter,  it  equally  evinces  that  the 
presbyters  of  the  third  century  were  not  laymen. 
"  It  is  not  lawfiel,  ovx  t%ov  sale,  without  the  bishop,  to  bap- 
tize, or  cvyartTjv  rtoiew,  celebrate  the  feast."  If  the  duties 
which  are  here  supposed  to  be  legalized  by  the  bishop, 
be  baptism  and  the  eucharist,  presbyters,  not  laymen, 
must  have  been  prohibited.  The  prohibition  supposes 
an  antecedent  contrary  practice  ;  and  the  power  of 
the  bishop,  hereby  gained,  resulted  from  a  restraint 
imposed  upon  presbyters,  under  the  pretext  of  secur- 
ing peace.  They  were  not,  however,  reduced  to  lay- 
men, nor  have  they  been  at  any  subsequent  period. 

The  letter  directed  to  Polycarp,  from  Troas,  re- 
sembles the  rest,  except  that  to  the  Romans  ;  yet  has 
been  doubted  by  some  who  have  received  the  other 
six.  If  Polycarp  could  have  had  a  personal  acquain- 
tance with  every  man  in  his  charge,  *«$  xata  avSpa — 
taut,,  he  was  scarcely  a  diocesan.  After  enjoining 
him  to  let  nothi?ig  be  done  without  his  consent,  "  M-rfinv 
ovev  yvw^s  aov  ywstsOa,  turning  to  the  people,  the  cun- 
ning writer  says,  attend  to  the  bishop  that  God  also  may 

to  you,  -t<p  srfttfxojttp    rtpo5«#£T'£,  utt  xai  6  Qio;  'vfiiv.      1 10 ill  be 

the  surety,  soul  for  soul,  of  them  that  submit  to  the  bishop, 
presbyters,  and  deacons,  avlityvx°v  £y<°  tfw  vnotanaofjitviw  tv 
t7tu3xo7tci>,  Ttpsafiv-tcpois,  Biaxoio^.  This  is  not  too  much 
to  be  expected  of  the  real  author.  All  the  relevant 
passages  have  not  been  quoted,  but  nothing  has  been 
discovered  in  these  letters,  either  of  diocesan  superi- 
ority, or  of  lay  eldership.  Nevertheless,  an  indiscreet 
zeal  to  enhance  the  power  of  bishops,  and  to  depre- 
ciate the  authority  of  presbyters,  appears  in  all,  ex- 
cept that  to  the  Romans. 

At  the  period  of  these  letters,  it  is  plain,  that  bishops 
in  nothing,  differed  from  pastors  of  churches,  or  con- 
gregational bishops ;  except  that  there  still  remained 
in  all  the  churches,  presbyters  who  preached,  and 
might,  with  the  bishop's  usurped  permission,  perform 


56  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

the  other  ordinances ;  and  nothing  has  appeared  in 
these  letters,  or  any  other  writings  hitherto  examined, 
to  show,  or  even  found  a  suspicion,  that  there  ever 
had  been  more  than  one  ordinary  preaching  office. 
Also,  not  a  solitary  fact  or  circumstance  has  occurred 
in  these  letters,  or  prior  to  the  third  century,  which 
furnishes  even  the  idea  of  a  lay  presbyter.  Those 
who  are  accustomed  to  argue  conclusively  from  them, 
that  no  diversity  existed  in  the  ordination  of  preach- 
ers, ought  also  to  discern,  that  this  circumstance,  is 
equally  decisive  against  the  existence  of  lay  presby-, 
ters  at  that  period,  and  corroborates  the  allegation  of 
a  total  defect  of  such  an  ordination,  either  by  precept 
or  example  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures. 


AN  ANSWER  TO  "  PHILO-IGNATIUS." ' 

This  signature  is  an  assumption  of  that,  which  the 
writer  aims  to  establish  ;  and  unjust  in  the  eyes  of 
those  who  deem  the  letters  vindicated  a  blot  upon  the 
memory  of  the  pious  martyr.  That  they  are  ancient 
is  unquestionable :  if  P.  I.  can  show  them  to  be  gen- 
uine, or  disclose  ancient  proofs  of  the  martyi'ology,  he 
will  do  a  public  service.  The  burden  of  proving  lies 
upon  the  affirmative  ;  facts  only,  not  opinions,  are  ad- 
missible. Proofs  later  than  the  third  century,  in 
which  their  subject  matter  appears  to  place  them,  are 
of  no  avail,  except  as  to  their  Arian  and  Athanasian 
interpolations. 

ThatEusebius  represents  Ignatius  as  passing-  through 
Asia  on  his  way  to  martyrdom  at  Rome,  was  alleged 
by  W.  To  this  P.  I.  has  politely  answered  :  "  Euse- 
bius  in  truth  asserts  no  such  thing."     The  first  issue  is, 

1  Gospel  Advocate,  Vol.  iLi.  No.  2. 


OP     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  57 

therefore,  upon  the  words — "  i*p>  8t'  A<na*  avaxo/ntyv 

HOlOVflCVO^.      m 

P.  I.  has  observed,  "  Avaxo^ri  means,  according  to 
Suidas,  the  same  as  awvyo^,  jrfowoSo;  ava$oea.  The  word 
is  used  in  speaking  of  the  transportation  of  a  dead 
body  from  one  sepulchre  to  another,  from  a  field  of 
battle  to  interment.  See  2.  Mace.  xii.  39.  Ettxo^^o, 
a  word  of  the  same  origin  is  used  in  Luke,  vii.  12,  of 
the  son  of  the  widow  of  Nain,  'who  was  carried  out  for 
burial.  The  idea,  then,  conveyed  by  this  expressive 
word,  is  that  of  carrying  away  without  any  will  of  the 
person  carried.'''' 

If  the  three  synonymes  brought  from  Suidas  be  cor- 
rect, to  which  Hesychius  adds  amyoy^,  then  avaxofiuS^ 
must  signify  the  very  reverse  of  carrying  away,  a 
return.  But,  "t^ixo^eto,  a  word  of  the  same  origin,  is 
— carried  out."  And  rightly,  for  ix  and  am,  in  compo- 
sition, have  opposite  meanings.  Another  proof  is 
brought  from  2  Mace.  xii.  39,  where  avaxopioaveat,  is 
used  for  "  the  transportation  of  dead  bodies."  It  is  a 
mistake;  it  is  there  used  for  the  bringing  the  dead 
bodies  to  be  buried;  otherwise  exxo/ximadai  would  have 
been  adopted,  as  in  Luke.  Ko,u.^to  is  to  bear,  sx  is 
away,  ^xxo^^co  is  to  bear  away,  and  exxo/u.^,  like  tx<poea, 
is  transportation,  or  a  carrying  away.  On  the  contrary, 
am  is  re  in  composition  ;  cu-axo^u  is  to  bring  back,  or 
return ;  and  avaxo^vhri  a  return,  as  Suidas  has  shown. 
By  what  authority  P.  I.  could  affirm,  that  avaxo/j.^ 
signifies  a  "carrying  away  without  any  will  of  the  person 
carried,  remains  for  him  to  discover.  He  knew,  that 
xofuty  means  care,  or  a  carrying  ;  that  tx  signifies  away, 
and  ava  the  opposite.  How  he  could  represent  avaxo- 
/ki8»7  the  same  as  exxo^y,  a  carrying  away,  his  claim  of 
"  learning  a?id  experience"  requires  him  to  develope.  In 
KOfitu,  euro,  the  will  of  the  agent  is  implied.  But  if  he 
could  elicit  from  avaxofiiS^  the  idea  of  "  without  any  will 

m  Euseb.  lib.  iii.  c.  36.     Vide  Necephor.  lib.  iii.  c.   xix. — k*i 

tsjvuv   Setr/xioc  Si  A<rta.<;  tov  /*{!'  a.<r<pct^oug  tguc  vpoufus — "  et  AsiaTO 
cum  firma  militum  custodia  peragrans." 


58  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

of  the  person  carried"  he  would  depart  from  the  syno- 
nymes  he  has  brought  from  Suidas — oppose  the  letters 
he  wishes  to  establish,  which  assert  the  martyr's  wil- 
lingness ;  and  contradict  TtoKw^os,  which  expresses 
the  reverse. 

W.  imagines  that  ixxofuty  and  waxo/tity  were  words 
commonly  used,  for  going  from  and  returning  to  the 
capital,  especially  on  those  public  roads,  which  were 
made  from  Rome  into  the  provinces.  But  he  was 
**  misled  by  trusti?ig  to  the  Latin  translation,  of  Valesius, 
which  is,  cum  per  Asiam  ductaretur.  This,  in  his  zeal  to 
find  out  an  inconsistency,  he  thought  could  mean  no- 
thing else  than  an  overland  journey.  If  he  had  looked 
at  the  ancient  translation  by  Rufinus,  he  would  have 
found  this  very  passage  thus  rendered,  cum  per  Asiam 
sub  custodia  navigaret." 

P.  I.  concluding,  what  indeed  is  too  true,  that  W.  is 
a  "  novice,"  sports  with  him ;  as  if  ftoiwpevos  was  navi- 
garet,  and  an  object,  -tr\v  avaxo/xcSr(v,  equivalent  unto  sub 
custodia,  a  circumstance.  P.  I.  has  been  himself  se- 
duced, and  as  those  who  fall  into  bad  company  have 
a  heart  ready  for  it,  so  he  has  been  too  anxious  to 
make  this  passage  express  sailing.  If  a  thousand 
such  critics  as  Philo-Ignatius  and  Rufinus  should  ren- 
der "trtv  aiaxofuSyv  ftoiovpsvos  by  ex  custodia  navigaret, 
there  would  be  no  defect  of  "  modesty"  in  smiling  at 
their  acumen. 

It  is  further  observed  by  the  author  in  the  "  Gospel 
Advocate  ;"  "  An  examination  of  a  map  would  show 
at  once,  why  Eusebius  used  the  expression  fii'Acrtof. 
Instead  of  going  straight  from  Antioch  through  the 
Mediterranean  to  Italy,  which  would  have  been  the 
most  direct  and  ordinary  course,  the  martyr  was  con- 
veyed fit'Atfiaj,  by  the  way  of  Asia  Minor."  "  The  Mar- 
tyrology  specifies  that  Ignatius  went  by  water  from 
Selucia  to  Neapolis,  touching  only  at  the  several 
places  mentioned  in  Asia  Minor."  "  Learned"  men 
sometimes  presume  too  much  upon  the  "  ignorance"  of 
others.     A  great  circle  passing  through  Antioch  to 


OF    CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  59 

the  capital  of  the  empire,  varies  little  from  the  ancient 
Roman  way,  through  what  is  now  called  Asia  Minor, 
to  Pergamus ;  and  from  the  road  from  Neapolis  by 
Thessalonica  to  the  Adriatic,  opposite  Brundusium ; 
and  from  the  Appian  way,  which  passed  directly  to 
the  Amphitheatre.  Any  course  by  sea  from  Antioch 
to  Rome  will  deviate  from  the  line  mentioned,  by  a 
perpendicular  distance,  not  less  than  three  or  four 
times  longer  than  any  one  from  any  part  of  the  route 
through  Asia,  by  Neapolis,  Thessalonica,  and  Brun- 
dusium. If  it  were  worth  the  effort  to  controvert  the 
assertion,  that  sailing  was  then  the  "  ordinary''''  mode, 
it  can  be  evinced  equally  incorrect. 

That  the  pious  Ignatius  was  sent  by  Trajan  to  Rome 
in  some  manner,  and  died  a  martyr  there,  we  will  not 
dispute.  That  these  forgeries  existed  when  Eusebius 
wrote,  is  credible,  but  to  what  interpolations  they  were 
afterwards  subjected,  is  not  known.  A  suggestion  of 
a  possibility  that  the  larger  were  those  which  Eusebius 
had  seen,  induced  P.  I.  to  exhibit  comparisons  of  the 
three  quotations  in  that  versatile  historian.  The  first 
he  has  judged  unimportant.  The  second  is  five  to  one 
against  him,  upon  his  own  showing.  With  regard  to 
the  third,  it  is  enough  to  say :  If  Eusebius  had  the 
larger  ones  before  him,  he  omitted  only  what  was  in 
the  Scriptures,  and  sufficiently  known.  Also,  it  is  not 
to  be  supposed,  that  if  the  smaller  were  last  made,  the 
abridger  would  have  ventured  to  deviate  from  the 
then  most  public  historian  in  the  Christian  world. 
The  same  reason  also  operates  with  equal  force  to 
show,  that  the  larger  were  prior  to  Eusebius ;  at  least 
in  that  passage,  for  a  wary  interpolator  must  have 
feared  the  variance. 

Whether  the  Arian  or  Athanasian  set,  or  the  origi- 
nal forgeries,  were  seen  by  Constantine's  historian,  it 
is  impossible  to  tell.  P.  I.  thinks  their  genuineness 
"  long  ago  settled  by  the  judgment  of  the  learned 
world."  On  the  contrary,  Dr.  Priestly  alleges,  "  that 
the  genuineness  of  them  is  not  only  very  much  doubt- 


60  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,  &C. 

ed,  but  generally  given  up  by  the  learned."  Both 
have  erred  ;  for  the  history  of  the  dispute  will  show, 
it  is  still  sub  judice.  But  an  appeal  to  opinions  is 
worse  than  vain  ;  facts  must  decide. 

The  imbecility  of  W.  should  have  saved  him  from 
the  charge  of  enmity  against  episcopacij.  If  by  that 
name,  P.  1.  intends  a  denomination,  W.  believes  it  a 
part  of  the  body  of  Christ,  and  to  continue  till  He 
comes  ; — it  has  his  daily  prayers  :  if  a  class  of  profess- 
ing Christians,  many  of  these  are  his  best  and  most  be- 
loved friends,  with  whom  he  mixes  before  the  throne 
of  grace  :  if  the  diocesan  form  of  government,  W.  wishes 
every  one  to  follow  it  who  chooses,  and  promises  to 
do  so  himself,  if  P.  I.  will  show  even  probability  for  its 
existence  in  the  New  Testament,  or  the  two  first  cen- 
turies. 

The  object  of  the  writer  of  these  numbers  is  to  coun- 
teract an  episcopacy  industriously,  but  not  always  in- 
genuously, propagated  in  his  own  denomination;  with 
which  the  letters  of  the  pseudo-Ignatius  have  a  closer 
affinity  than  with  that  which  is  diocesan ;  against  the 
early  existence  of  which  they  are  a  standing  monu- 
ment. 

n  Schroeckh,  the  most  distinguished  of  the  modern  ecclesiastical 
historians  of  Germany,  not  only  asserts  that  the  genuineness  of  the 
larger  epistles  of  Ignatius  has  received  very  little  support  from  the 
learned,  but  plainly  intimates  an  opinion  that  the  smaller,  if  not  a 
forg-ery,  have  been  interpolated.  In  his  epitome,  he  says,  "  appa- 
ruit  tandem,  etiam  breviores  earum,  nisi  ab  alio  scriptas,  at  certe 
interpolates  esse  in  gratiam  episcoporum," — Ed. 


SECTION   VII. 

Expediency  no  justification  for  ordinations  not  prescribed  by  divine  authority. 
— The  work  of  Minucius  Felex  shows  that  Christians  had  no  temples,  altars, 
nor  images,  when  he  wrote,  and  that  their  worship  was  concealed. — The  Sta~ 
tue  of  Hippolytus  in  the  Vatican,  is  later  than  A.D.  600. — His  tract  against 
Ncetus,  proves  that  a  presbytery  in  a  church  had  the  power  to  cite  and  depose 
a  heretic. — Origen  calls  the  angels  of  the  seven  churches  in  the  Apocalypse 
Trpoa/lapH.  — The  Philocalia  were  collected  long  after  his  death;  a  passage 
in  them  has  been  misunderstood. — His  censures  of  the.  ambition  and  ignor- 
ance of  bishops  and  presbyters,  and  his  interpretations  of  the  Scriptures 
evince,  that  the  church  was  still  in  the  state  of  parochial  episcopacy. 

If  a  mode  of  government  can  be  elicited  from  the 
New  Testament,  the  maxim,  "whatever  is  best  admin- 
istered is  best,"  is  more  objectionable  in  ecclesi- 
astical, than  civil  politics.  Ambition  has  often  per- 
verted both;  yet  the  essentials  of  the  church  of  Christ 
exist  in  many  denominations  unto  this  day.  Never- 
theless, to  affirm  that  expediency  can  vindicate  ordi- 
nations not  found  in  the  word,  is  to  assert,  that  the  end 
can  justify  unlawful  means.  Pious  breathings  of  heart 
are  religion,  yet  zeal  should  associate  attainable  know- 
ledge, correct  motives,  and  other  circumstances ;  and 
never  substitute  "  for  doctrines  the  commandments  of 
men." 

Minucius,  Hippolytus,  and  Origen  will  now  prove, 
that  during  the  intermissions  of  the  sufferings  inflicted 
by  Severus,  Maximinus,  and  Decius,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury the  scriptural  ordinary  officers  ruled,  and  served 
the  churches. 

The  Octavius  of  Marcus  Minucius  Felix  appears  to 
have  been  written,  after  the  apology  of  Tertullian, 
and  to  contain  passages  transcribed  by  Cyprian.  It 
is  a  vindication  of  Christianity  perfectly  in  character 
for  a  Roman  orator,  as  was  the  writer, 

G 


62  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

Cecilius  presents  the  arguments  of  the  day  against, 
and  Octavius  defends,  the  "mad  superstition;"  Marcus 
is  intrusted  by  the  former  to  be  umpire,  and  by  him 
also  saved  from  the  trouble  of  a  sentence.     This  plea- 
sant little  fiction  offers  to  our  subject  nothing  relevant, 
except  an  unbiassed  representation,  at  its  period,  of 
the  humble  condition  of  the  Christian  church  in  the 
capital  of  the  world.      Cecilius,  in   his  ardor  asks; 
"Why  have  they,"  the  Christians,  "neither  altars,  nor 
temples,  nor  any  images,  at  least  which  are  known! 
Why  do  they  not  speak,  but  in  private  holes,  and  cor- 
ners, whither  they  repair  by  stealth,  if  this  their  reli- 
gion be  not  infamous  and  criminal?"     Octavius,  who 
answers  the  objections  of  his  opponent  in  succession, 
asks,  "To  what  purpose  should  we  make  any  form  or 
representation  of  God,  whose  living  image,  man  him- 
self is  1    Or  what  temple  should  we  raise  to  him,  since 
the  world,  which  he  has  formed,  is  not  able  to  contain 
him?  Were  it  not  much  better  to  dedicate  our  mind  for 
his  abode,    and   consecrate  our  heart  for  his  altar? 
Nor  ought  we  to  be  accused  of  prating  in  corners,  if 
you  be  either  ashamed  or  afraid  to  hear  us  in  public." 
Cecilius  had  also  said,  "Their  nocturnal  ceremonies 
and  concealed  devotions  sufficiently  prove  the  things 
charged  against  them.     And  they  who  tell  us,  that 
they  worship  a  man,  who  was  crucified,  and  that  the 
wood  of  a  cross  constitutes  a  great  part  of  their  de- 
votion, do  worthily  attribute  to  them  altars  suitable  to 
their  crimes,  adoring  what  they  deserve."      To  these 
things  Octavius  replied;  "We  neither  worship  crosses, 
nor  wish  to  be  nailed  to  them.     You  yourselves  are 
more    likely  to    adore  them,  who   worship   wooden 
gods,  that  are  made  of  the  same  matter."     Cecilius 
had  with  acrimony  asked;  "shall  we  suffer  men  of  an 
unlawful,  infamous  and  desperate  faction,  without  fear 
of  punishment,  to  attempt  against  the  gods — a  confe- 
deracy, or  rather  a  conspiracy,  into  which  they  are 
not  initiated  by  any  holy  rites,  but  by  impious  crimes, 
practised  in  their  night  conventicles,  solemn  fasts,  and 
horrid  and  inhuman  feasts?     These  are  the  people  that 


OP    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  63 

skulk  in  the  dark,  and  flee  the  light,  who  are  mute  in 
public,  and  full  of  chat  in  their  private  assemblies. 
They  slight  the  dignities  of  the  priesthood,  and  con- 
temn the  sacred  purple,  &c."  Octavius  answered; 
"As  for  our  feasts,  they  are  chaste  and  sober.  With 
respect  to  honors,  it  doth  not  follow,  that  because  we 
decline  your  purple  and  dignities,  that  we  are  the  dregs 
of  the  people;  nor  are  we  to  be  accounted  factious,  if 
aspiring  after  the  same  happiness,  we  all  meet  together 
in  peace,  and  retirement." 

Such  was  the  humiliating  condition  of  the  churches 
in  Italy,  at  the  period  mentioned.  Instead  of  power 
and  dignity,  liberty  of  conscience  had  no  public  pro- 
tection, and  the  true  worshippers  met,  only,  under  the 
clouds  of  the  night,  in  sequestered  corners. 

Hippolytus,  probably  an  inhabitant  of  Arabia,  was 
-contemporary  with  Minucius  Felix;  but  if  a  resident 
of  Portus,  the  mouths  of  the  Tiber  only  divided  him 
from  the  scene  of  the  Octavius.  Some  fragments  on- 
ly are  his,  in  the  volume  which  bears  his  name. 

The  "Chronicon"  was  the  work  of  another  Hippoly- 
tus.    The  tract  "De  Consummatione  Mundi,"  which 
treats  of  Antichrist,  is  the  production  of  a  later  age. 
The  confidence  and  ignorance,  which  it  displays,  agree 
not  with  the  character  given  by  Photius  and  others,  of 
this  father.      "The  commentary  on  the  story  of  Su- 
sannah" is  equally  unworthy.     "The  accounts  of  the 
Apostles  and  Disciples,"  if  his,  have  been  interpolated 
with  fictions  of  later  times.  The  nameless  monumental 
statue,  now  in  the  Vatican,  rescued  from  the  ground 
in  1551,  bearing  an  engraving  of  the  Cycle  attributed 
to  Hippolytus,  is  supposed  to  have  been  of  him ;  but 
four-fifths  of  the  titles  of  the  works,  appearing  on  the 
engraved  representation  of  it,  are  not  those  ascribed 
to  him  by  Eusebius,  Jerom,  Photius,  and  the  rest;  and 
no  one  of  them  is  certain.     The  forms  of  some  of  the 
Greek  letters  are  later  and  so  must  the  statue  be,  than 
the  sixth  century.     "The  apostolic  tradition"  which  is 
now  published  in  his  name,  rests  upon  no  other  evi- 
dence than  this  stone.     Being  indeed  a  modification 


64  THE   PRIMITIVE   GOVERNMENT 

from  the  eighth  book  of  the  apostolical  constitutions,  it 
merits  equal  contempt,  and  carries  its  obvious  grounds 
of  condemnation  on  its  face.  Yet  was  it  written  when 
bishops  were  parochial,  commissioned  without  impo- 
sition of  hands,  when  a  presbytery  was  in  every 
church,  when  the  presbyters  were  all  preachers,  and  the 
deacons  served.  "The  demonstration  against  the 
Jews,"  seems  to  be  a  commentary  on  the  69th  Psalm. 
Neither  in  it,  nor  in  any  of  the  fragments  of  his  com- 
mentaries, has  any  thing  been  found  relative  to  the  go- 
vernment of  the  church. 

The  tract  "Against  the  heresy  of  a  certain  Noetus," 
the  patripassian,  contains  much  good  sense  and  has 
claims  of  genuineness.  In  the  first  paragraph  Noetus 
is  said  to  have  affirmed,  that  Christ  was  the  Father, 
and  that  the  Father  himself  suffered;  that  Noetus  was 
Moses;  and  his  brother,  Aaron;  and  that  "the  presby- 
ters having  heard  these  things,  and  cited  him,  n^a- 
/3v7fgoc  rt.Qoixa%t6antvoi,  they  examined  him  before  the 
church."  He  denied,  but  afterwards,  defended  openly 
his  opinions.  "The  presbyters  summoned  him  a  se- 
cond time,  condemned" — and  "cast  him  out  of  the 
church."  If  this  be  a  part  of  the  writings  of  Hippo- 
lytus  against  heretics,  mentioned  by  Eusebius,  Jerom, 
and  Photius,  and  quoted  without  name  by  Epiphanius, 
it  accords  with  all  antecedent  evidence,  and  evinces, 
that  the  presbytery  in  a  church,  then,  had  the  power  of 
citing,  trying,  and  excommunicating  heretics.  The 
presbyters  in  this  case  acted  unquestionably  as  a  pres- 
bytery, which  must  have  had  its  president,  or  in  the 
language  of  some  in  that  day,  bishop.  The  whole  pro- 
ceedings are  described  as  they  should  have  been,  upon 
the  supposition,  that  this  had  all  the  officers  heretofore 
found  in  any  regularly  constituted  church.  The  trial 
and  sentence  against  a  heretic,  here  had  by  presby- 
ters, well  accords  with  their  clerical  ordination.  Hip- 
polytus  says,  Noetus  was  of  Smyrna.  Epiphanius 
makes  Ephesus,  the  birth  place  of  this  heresy,  but  he 
is  a  loose  writer,  and  was  born  more  than  a  century 
after. 


OF    CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  65 

Origen,  who  was  honoured  with  the  name  Adaman- 
tius,  was  born  some  time  before  the  end  of  the  second 
and  lived  unto  the  middle  of  the  third  century.  Hav- 
ing taught  successfully  a  philosophic  and  catechetic 
school  in  Alexandria,  he  was  at  length  irregularly  or- 
dained in  Palestine,  a  presbyter.a  His  expositions  of 
the  Scriptures  are  often  refined  and  visionary;  and  his 
doctrines  on  some  points  unsound.  But  as  his  powers 
of  discrimination  have  justly  demanded  high  respect,  so 
his  piety  was  of  the  purest  water.  Speaking  of  the  an- 
gels in  the  Apocalypse,  he  says;  "That  certain  ruling 
presbyters  in  the  churches  were  called  angels,  by  John 
in  the  Apocalypse."b  The  same  term,  n^otalui,  was 
used  by  Paul;c  and  continually  by  Justin  Martyr,  for 
that  presbyter,  who  presided  in  worship,  and  blessed 
the  sacramental  elements.  This  head  of  the  elders 
must  have  been,  for  there  was  no  higher  ordinary  offi- 
cer in  any  Christian  church,  the  angel  in  each  of  the 
churches  in  the  Apocalypse.  Here  is  the  learned  Ori- 
gen, a  cotemporary  for  many  years  with  Irenaeus,  Cle- 
mens Al.  and  Tertullian,  another  decisive  witness,  that 
the  ruling,  was  not  a  lay,  presbyter.  He  observes  also, 
"With  us,  reasonings  are  mild  towards  those,  who  re- 
ceive instruction;  but  it  becomes  him,  who  has  been 
promoted  to  the  work  of  teaching,  rt^oiala/Mivov  *ov  %oyov, 
to  be  able  to  convince  such  as  oppose  the  Gospel." 
ll  The  word  rtgoialanevov  here  used  for  any  person, 
who  has  been  elevated  to  the  office  of  a  teacher,  is 
used  in  the  same  sense,  in  1  Thess.  v.  12.  where,  fol- 
lowing, without  the  article,  it  is  another  characteristic 
of  those,  who  had  been  described  as  "labouring  in  the 
word."     If  it  be  the  duty  of  a  7t%oio1an£vos  president  to  be 

a  Erasmus  in  his  life  of  Origen,  and  others,  have  given  too  much 
credit  to  the  relations  of  Eusebius:  he  was  partial  to  Origen,  and 
opposed  Porphyry  by  stories  instead  of  proofs. 

'..  rigGS!r7w'7«.f  Ttvut  tu»  (x.x.xn<rictiv  ctyyexcvt  Myirdxt  zrapx  t« 
laayfK  sv  T**-?cox.uL-Kv-ieu,''    De  Orat.  S.  34. 

c  1  Tim.  v.  If. 

<»  Contra  Celsum,  lib.  vi.  p.  279. 

g2 


66  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

able  to  convince  adversaries,  it  follows  that  the  same 
rtgotolaptvoe,  ruling  elder  of  a  church  was  a  teacher. 
The  word  denotes  presidency  or  priority,  and  being 
associated  with  the  authority  to  teach,  but  contrasted 
with  the  milder  instructions  of  catechist,  it  sufficiently 
discovers  the  office  to  have  been  that  of  a  presbyter; 
for  although  the  term  bishop  was  now  often  used  for 
Ttgotolut,  presiding  elder;  there  were,  as  yet,  but  the 
two  ordinations,  one  of  presbyters,  the  other  of  dea- 
cons. 

An  argument  for  the  identity  of  the  orders  of  bish- 
ops and  presbyters,  has  often  been  drawn  from  the  first 
chapter  of  Titus,  where  the  terms  of  office,  and  the 
personal  qualifications  are  used  so  promiscuously,  as  to 
baffle  all  powers  of  discrimination.  Origen  has  ob- 
served on  the  same  passage,  that,  "It  is  evident,  that 
in  the  designation  of  those  denominated  bishops,  Paul 
delineating  what  kind  of  a  man,  it  was  fit,  should  be  a 
bishop,  has  directed,  that  he  be  a  teacher,  saying,  it 
becomes  him  to  be  able  to  confute  gainsayers."e  Here  the 
presbyters,  whom  Titus  was  left  in  Crete  to  ordain,  are 
declared  by  Origen,  to  have  been  the  persons,  whom 
Paul  immediately  afterwards  denominates  bishops; 
and  if  these  were  all  to  be  teachers,  which  is  here  also 
affirmed,  they  were  of  one  kind  only,  and  none  of 
them  laymen. 

A  passage  has  sometimes  been  quoted  and  unfairly 
translated,  on  prayer.  "  Besides  those  which  are  gen- 
eral, there  is  a  certain  debt  to  the  widow,  who  has 
been  received  by  the  church,  tic  x^ac — o<j>«x^,  and  ano- 
ther to  the  deacon,  x<u  itt^a  hiaxovov,  and  another  to  the 
presbyter,  xav  oxxy  ne, to fivt te,ov, but  the  debt  to  the  bishop 

is  the  most  weighty,   xav  sriioxortov  6f  ofsiXr,  fiagvlairi   toliv, 

being  required  by  the  Saviour  of  the  whole  church,  and 
avenged,  unless  it  be  paid."f 

If  the  debt  to  the  presbyter  was  thought  by  Origen,  to 
be  different  from  that  due  the  bishop,  he  has  not  so  ex- 

e  Orig\  contra  Celsum.  lib.  iii.  p.  140, 
f  Orig".  TLtfi.  iv^hc. 


OF   CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  67 

pressed  it  The  translation,  "another  to  presbyters, 
and  another  to  bishops"  is  indefensible.  Yet  if  we 
suppose  Origen  to  have  intended,  that  the  debt  due  the 
bishop  was  weightiest,  because  of  his  care  and  res- 
ponsibility, as  the  presiding  presbyter,  whose  superin- 
tending anxiety  for  the  whole  church,  laid  a  just  foun- 
dation of  a  claim  upon  the  people  for  proportional  re- 
muneration, the  passage  will  be  a  just  representation 
of  facts,  in  the  government  of  the  churches  at  that 
time;  and  the  adoption  of  the  word  bishop  in  the  sense 
of  rtgostfr'ttj,  ruling  elder  would  have  been  no  more  than 
a  conformity  to  a  mode  of  expression,  which  was  be- 
ginning to  be  adopted  in  his  day.  But  the  debt  to  the 
bishop  not  being  expressed  to  be  another,  may  be  taken 
to  be  that,  which  was  before  declared  to  be  due  to  the 
presbyter,  and  what  may  be  said  of  the  bishop's  claim 
may  be  grammatically  viewed,  as  affirmed  of  the  last 
of  the  three  kinds  of  debts,  which  had  been  enumerat- 
ed. This  interpretation  is  supported  also,  by  the  cir- 
cumstance, that  he  speaks  of  the  officers  of  the 
church,  sometimes  as  presbyters,  and  deacons,  and  at 
others  as  bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons.^  But  upon 
any  interpretation  there  is  no  ground  to  imagine,  that 
he  meant  by  the  presbyter,  a  layman. 

The  Philocalia  were  collected  more  than  a  century 
after  Origen's  death.  To  quote  this  production  in  sup- 
port of  those  writings  from  whence  they  are  presumed 
to  have  been  taken,  may  be  proper.  But  they  ought  not 
to  be  deemed  competent  evidence  of  any  thing,  not 
found  in  his  works.  A  mistaken  passage  has  been 
brought  from  the  Philocalia  to  prove  "the  succession 
SiaSo^v  of  the  apostles,"  but  the  writer  is  speaking  of 
the  handing  dow?i  of  the  Scriptures  by  the  apostles. 

He  censures  those  deacons,  who  coveted  "  the  first 
seats  of  those,  who  are  denominated  presbyters,  and 
such  as  laid  schemes  to  be  called  presbyters  ;h  and  al- 
leges, that  as  Christ  washed  the  feet  of  his  disciples, 

g  Tract  No.  v.  on  Matt,  and  Horn.  vii.  on  Jeremiah, 
h  Tract  24,  on  Matt. 


68  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,  &C. 

"so  a  bishop  should  minister  as  a  servant,  to  his  fel- 
low servants."'  His  complaint  of  those  bishops  and 
presbyters,  who  were  unlearned  and  flagitiousk'  may- 
have  provoked  his  own  bishop,  by  whose  obloquy  his 
character  was  assailed.  Had  the  office  of  Demetrius 
been  by  ordination,  or  resulted  from  seniority,  those 
jealousies  would  probably  never  have  arisen;  nor  had 
the  church  at  Alexandria  been  deprived  of  the  unrival- 
led learning,  and  exemplary  piety  of  Origen. 

That  there  should  be  one,  however  designated  among 
the  plurality  of  equals,  in  every  public  body,  to  facili- 
tate their  operations,  or  lead  in  duties,  is  suggested  by 
the  experience  of  all  assemblies,  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
The  Greeks  denominated  him  *£0£cj7co$,  president,  the 
identical  term  adopted  by  the  first  Christian  presbyte- 
ries for  their 'primus.  The  seven  apocalyptic  churches 
were  indirectly  addressed,  through  that  officer,  by  the 
name  angel,  chosen  because  less  publicly  known,  but 
we  have  found  not  one  instance  in  any  uninspired 
writing  of  the  use  of  that  name  in  the  same  sense.  To 
show  how  this  unordained  presidency  over  equals, 
grew  into  parcohial  episcopacy,  all  the  credible  evi- 
dence which  has  hitherto  occurred,  has  been  present- 
ed. But  every  effort  to  discover,  even  the  existence 
of  lay  elders,  or  of  any  inferior  grade  of  presbyters, 
has  totally  failed;  neither  has  there  besn  found  a  single 
word  of  such  a  diversity,  nor  the  idea  of  such  an  offi- 
cer, in  any  church.  If  such  a  class  of  men  had  existed 
in  the  apostolic  churches,  it  could  not  have  escaped 
detection.  If  the  Scriptures  had  been  understood,  by 
the  apostles  and  evangelists  to  warrant  it,  the  grade 
must  have  existed,  and  would  certainly  have  appeared. 
The  conclusion  is  consequently  undeniable,  that  those, 
who  find  lay  presbyters  in  the  New  Testament,  have 
made  a  discovery  of  that,  of  which  the  inspired  men, 
who  wrote  it,  never  entertained  an  idea. 

i  Tract  31,on  Matt.  *  Tract  15,  on  Matt 


SECTION  VIII. 


Cyprian  was  chosen  bishop  of  his  church  by  the  people,  against  a  majority  of 
the  presbyters. — The  great  promoter  of  episcopal  power. — He  presided  over 
one  church  or  congregation  only,  and  had  no  idea  of  diocesan  episcopacy. — 
Professing  it  his  duty  to  act  only  with  the  presbyters,  he  availedhimself of every 
opportunity  of  acting  prior  to  them. — He  often  justified  his  conduct  by  the 
pretences  of  visions,  suggestions,  and  dreams. — The  presbyters  of  Carthage 
over  whom  he  presided,  had  not  distinct  assemblies ;  the  flock  was  one,  and' 
no  more. — This  bishop  was  chosen  by  the  people  from  among  the  presbyters, 
and  Cyprian  is  the  first  and  earliest  authority  for  bishops  being  commission- 
ed by  other  bishops;  how  it  was  done,  is  not  shown  ;  and  jive  of  the  eight 
presbyters  being  opposed  to  him,  it  is  not  discernible  hovj  otherwise  it  could 
have  been  effected- — The  apostolical  constitutions  had  probably  no  existence 
at  this  period. 

Thascius  Cyprianus  was  a  native  of  Africa,  and  a 
celebrated  teacher  of  rhetoric  in  Carthage.  Convinced 
by  Ccecilius,  a  presbyter,  about  the  middle  of  the  third 
century,  he  adopted  his  name  at  his  baptism  ;  was,  in 
the  compass  of  a  year,  ordained  a  presbyter  ;  and,  in 
the  next,  made  bishop  by  the  suffrage  of  the  people, 
but  against  the  opinion  of  five  of  the  eight  presbyters 
of  the  church.a  He  soon  deserted  his  charge,  retiring 
from  persecution.  Censured  by  his  people,  and  the 
Christians  at  Rome,  he  alleged,  among  other  defences, 
a  divine  admonition,  revealed  by  vision.  His  sudden 
change  from  Gentilism,  and  almost  simultaneous  pro- 
motions ;  his  conscious  possession  of  superior  talents, 
with  consequent  impatience  of  instruction  and  igno- 
rance of  evangelical  doctrines,  rendered  him  the  vic- 
tim of  numerous  and  destructive  errors.  His  native 
ambition,  stimulated  by  opposition,  and  supported  by 
mistaken  conceptions  of  priestly  power,  led  him  to 
employ  the  protracted  period  of  his  retirement  in  epis- 

a  Vide  Epist.  43.  p.  227, 


70  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

tolary  correspondence,  not  only  with  his  own  forsaken 
charge,  but  with  the  bishops  and  presbyters  of  all  the 
churches  in  the  civilized  world,  wherever  there  existed 
inquietude.    With  him  heresy  and  schism  appeared 
convertible  terms,  and  discipline,  rather  than  truth,  the 
proper  instrument  of  their  destruction.     The  bishops 
and  church  at  Rome  were  successively  dependent  on 
his  guidance,  or  jealous  of  his  influence.    The  nume- 
rous bishops  of  Africa  found  him  a  bond  of  union,  nor 
were  the  churches  of  Spain  and  Cappadocia,  opposite 
extremes,  insensible  of  his  ascendency.     His  ideas  of 
episcopal  unity,  and  of  the  necessity  of  intercourse  and 
mutual  support  among  bishops,  then  every  where  pa- 
rochial, probably  laid  the  foundation  of  hierarchy  in 
the  church  of  Christ.     The  multiplication  of  presby- 
ters became  necessary  in  the  cities,  as  the  number  of 
Christians  increased,  more  churches  than  one  being  in 
them  now  prohibited.     The  danger  in  times  of  perse- 
cution of  convening  in  multitudes,  the  instruction  of 
catechumeni  apart  from  the  church,  the  frequency  of 
schisms,  and  other  circumstances,  evince,  that  diffe- 
rent presbyters  conducted  worship,  at  least,  occasion- 
ally, in  separate  places.     But  neither  has  diocesan 
episcopacy,  nor  a  solitary  instance  of  a  ruling  or  lay 
elder  as  yet  occurred.     Had  there  existed  more  than 
one  congregation  in  Carthage  or  Rome,  they  must 
have  appeared  in  Cyprian's  letters  ;  for  it  is  not  pro- 
bable that  any  other  schisms,  or  heresies  arose  in  either 
of  those  cities,  within  the  period  of  his  letters,  than 
those  which  he  has  mentioned.     The  minuteness  of 
his  descriptions  of  persons  and  things,  renders  it  cer- 
tain, that  had  he  been  placed  over  more  than  one 
church,  it  would  have  appeared.    On  the  contrary,  no 
separate  churches,    no  diversity  of  communions,  no 
seduction  of  any  particular  section  of  his  charge  are 
seen ;    but  though  convening  in  small  numbers,  and 
possibly  in  different  places,  they  are  considered  one 
church,  having  the  same  officers. 

The  bishop  and  presbyters  at  Carthage  sat  on  the 
same  bench,  were  all,  in  the  language  of  the  day, 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  71 

priests,  to  instruct  and  administer  ordinances,  acted  in 
concert  in  all  judgments,  excommunications,  and  res- 
torations; and,  except  when  Cyprian  assumed  the 
power,  but  for  which  he  always  offered  an  excuse,  they 
joined  in  ordinations.  In  the  absence  of  the  bishop, 
we  find  the  presbyters  refusing  the  communion  to 
Gaius  a  co-presbyter,  and  to  a  deacon,  in  which  Cy- 
prian acknowledges,  they  acted  uprightly  and  by 
rule.b  Though  evidently  not  scrupulous  in  the  as- 
sumption of  power,  he  trespassed  only  where  he  was 
sure  of  support,  and  never  ventured  to  ordain  a  pres- 
byter, but  in  the  presbytery. 

When  omitting  bishops,  readers,  subdeacons,  aco- 
lythes,  he  names  only  prcepositi  and  diaconi,  it  is  evi- 
dence that  the  two  original  orders  were  not  forgotten. 
"  Since  it  becomes  all  to  be  observant  of  good  order, 
much  rather  is  it  proper  that  the  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons, prcepositos  et  diaconos,  should  take  care  of  this,who 
may  afford  an  example  and  proof  to  others,  by  their 
conversation   and  manners."0      At   first  opposed  by 
the  majority  of  his  co-presbyters,  and  not  yet  secure 
of  new  ones  in  whom  he  could  confide,  his  language 
was  very  different  from  his  after  conduct.     He  de- 
clared "  that  he  had  resolved  from  the  commencement 
of  his  episcopate,  to  do  nothing  privately  by  his  own 
opinion,  without  the  counsel  of  his  presbytery,  and 
without  the  consent  of  the  people.'"1      This  represen- 
tation, extorted  by  circumstances,  was  in  unison  with 
those  established  customs,  in  the  changing  of  which 
he  was  too  successful.  Hitherto  each  original  church 
was  governed  by  its  presbytery,  the  president,  *£««*«$, 
of  which  is  called  in  Cyprian,  sometimes  propositus, 
but  chiefly  episcopus.     Such  presbytery,  with  its  presi- 
dent, had  been  heretofore  competent  to  the  manage- 

b  Page  217,  Ep.  34. — Integrc  et  cum  disciplina  fecistis. 

c    Ep.  4.  p.  174. 

d  Quando  a  primordio  episcopatus  mei  statuerim,  nihil  sine  con- 
sdio  vestro,  et  sine  consensu  plebis,  mea  privatim  sententia  gerere 
— de  iis  quae  vel  gesta  sunt  vel  gererida,  sicut  honor  mutuus  poscit 
in  commune  tractabimus.    p.  192. 


T2  THE   PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

ment  of  the  ecclesiastic  government  and  worship  of 
the  Christians  in  each  city,  because  of  the  paucity  of 
their  number.  Cyprian,  by  the  erroneous  principle, 
that  where  a  church  has  been  planted  no  other  ought 
to  be  erected,  professedly  an  antidote  to  schism,  at 
the  same  time  enhanced  episcopal  influence,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  what  he  did  not  foresee,  diocesan 
government.  Though  tumid  with  self-importance, 
and  enamored  of  ecclesiastical  influence,  it  is  possible 
that  his  opposition  to  the  erection  of  a  second  altar, 
church,  and  bishop,  in  any  place,  was  at  least  prima- 
rily to  suppress  heresy.  He  wrote  to  Cornelius  at 
Rome,  who  had  informed  him  of  the  ordination  of 
Novation  there,  that  it  was  irregular,  because  where 
there  is  one  bishop  there  cannot  De  another,  and  pro- 
nounces him  a  spurious  and  rival  head,  out  of  the 
church.6  He  argues  that  Cornelius  succeeded  Fa- 
bianus,  and  that  Novatian  had  no  predecessor  at 
Rome.  His  crime  was,  therefore,  that  of  Jeroboam. 
If  Novatian  worshipped  the  true  God,  so  did  Koran. 
Why  there  could  not  have  been  a  second  church  at 
Rome,  if  the  number  of  converts  had  justified  it,  was 
neither  asked,  nor  answered.  That  all  new  assem- 
blies were  heretical,  soon  became,  by  his  influence, 
the  popular  opinion.  Cyprian  contended  that  those 
who  are  in  error,  have  not  the  Holy  Spirit ;  that  this 
is  necessary  to  him  who  baptizes,  because  he  who 
baptizes,  remits  sins.  He  affirmed  also,  that  the  water 
must  be  made  clean,  sanctified  by  the  priest ;  "  that  it 
may  be  able  to  wash  away  the  sins  of  him  who  is 
baptized,"  which  is  proved  by  the  passage,  "  /  will 
pour  clean  water  upon  you,  and  ye  shall  be  clean."f  From 
such  reasonings  he  concluded,  that  their  ordinations 
and  their  baptisms  were  void.  Firmilianus,  bishop  of 
Cassarea  in  Cappadocia,  in  his  letter  to  Cyprian,  s  says 

e  Adulterum  et  contrarium  caput  extra  ecclesiam.     Page  231. 

f  Pages  295,  296,  300. 

s  Epist.  75. — "  In  ecclesia  constituta  sit,  ubi  president  majores 
natu,  qui  et  baptizandi,  et  manum  imponendi,  ordinandi  possident 
potestatem." 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  73 

of  all  heretics,  "  that  if  they  divide  themselves  from 
the  church  of  God,  they  can  have  nothing  of  power 
or  of  grace  ;  seeing  all  power  and  grace  are  placed 
in  the  church,  where  the  elders  preside,  who  possess 
the  power  of  baptizing,  imposition  of  hands,  and  ordi- 
nation." The  presbyters,  not  in  exclusion  of  their 
president,  are  here  asserted  to  be  the  highest  officers 
of  the  churches,  and  rightly  ;  for  bishops  had  no  other 
authority  to  baptize  or  ordain,  than  as  they  were  pres- 
byters. The  words  majores  natu  are  a  correct  trans- 
lation of  rtpasj3vr,£pot,  shown  to  be  taken  in  an  official 
sense,  by  the  specification  of  powers  which  were 
peculiarly  those  of  presbyters. 

Cyprian,  whose  efforts  had  been  to  acquire  language 
and  gesture,  not  science  ;  whose  elocution,  not  his  su- 
perior attainments  in  doctrine  and  experience,  had 
gained  him  ascendency,  was  sensible  of  his  prefer- 
ment, and  proportionally  soured  by  opposition.  Whilst 
he  excused  the  martyrs  for  their  kindness  to  the  laps- 
ed, Cyprian  blamed  those  presbyters  and  deacons 
who  had  received  them  to  church  privileges ;  and 
arrogantly  directed,  that  they  should  be  kept  from  the 
communion,  until  they  had  pleaded  their  cause  before 
him,  and  before  the  confessors  themselves,-  and  before 
all  the  people.11  This  letter  was  directed  to  the  pres- 
byters and  deacons  of  a  single  congregation,  who 
were  to  be  assembled  together  with  the  people  to  de- 
cide the  cases  of  the  lapsed.  But  no  disparity  appears 
in  this  or  any  other  of  the  letters,  among  presbyters, 
except  the  presidential  dignity,  all  being  confessedly 
and  universally  clerical. 

By  his  discrimination  between  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons, Cyprian  plainly  shows,  he  had  no  idea  of  lay 
presbyters.  "  Deacons  should  remember  that  the 
Lord  chose  apostles,  that  is,  bishops  and  presbyters, 
apostolos,  id  est,  episcopos  et  pncpositos ;  and  that,  after 
the   ascension  of  the   Lord,  the   apostles  appointed 

h  "  Acturi  et  apud  nos,  et  apud  confessores  ipsos  et  apud  ple- 
bem  universam,  causam  suam."     Ep.  16,  p.  196. 

H 


74  THE   PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

deacons  the  servants  of  the  episcopate  and  the 
church."1 

The  fortieth  letter  has  been  strangely  distorted,  on 
the  one  hand  to  prove  the  commission  of  cardinals, 
and  on  the  other  to  establish  the  existence  of  lay  pres- 
byters. Whilst  Cyprian  was  in  retirement,  a  layman 
of  the  church  at  Carthage,  whose  name  was  Numidi- 
cus,  being  arraigned,  confessed  and  suffered,  but  sur- 
vived. This  confessor,  Cyprian,  secure  of  the  popu- 
lar voice,  directs  to  be  numbered,  and  to  sit  with  the 
presbyters.  No  duty  is  expressed  to  be  performed  by 
him  as  a  presbyter,  until  the  bishop  should  arrive,  and 
he  should  be  regularly  ordained,  and  promoted  to  the 
higher  grade.  The  letter  may  be  freely  rendered 
thus  : 

"  Cyprian  to  the  brethren  most  beloved,  and  longed 
for,  the  presbyters  and  deacons,  and  all  the  people, 
greeting : 

"  It  has  become  my  duty  to  announce  to  you,  be- 
loved brethren,  that  which  pertains  to  the  common 
exultation,  and  highest  honor  of  our  church.  Be  it 
known,  therefore,  to  you,  that  God  has  vouchsafed  to 
discover  to  us,  and  direct,  that  Numidicus,  renowned 
by  the  deafest  truth  of  a  confession,  and  elevated  by 
the  honor  of  fortitude  and  faith,  may  be  enrolled  a 
presbyter  in  the  number  of  the  presbyters  of  Carthage, 
and  sit  with  us  among  the  clergy.k  By  his  encou- 
raging counsels  he  has  sent  before  him  to  glory  a 
large  company  of  martyrs  through  a  shower  of  stones 
and  of  fire,  witnessing  with  pious  exultation  the  same 
fiery  consumption,  or  rather  salvation  of  his  own  wife, 
clinging  to  his  side.  Broiled  in  the  fire,  and  then  over- 
whelmed in  stones,  he  was  abandoned  with  the  dead  ; 
but  whilst  the  tender  solicitude  of  a  pious  daughter 

>  Epist.  3,  p.  173. 

Is  Nam  admonitos  nos  et  instructos  sciatis  dignatione  divina,  ut 
Numidicus  presbyter  adscribatur  presbyterorum  Carthageniensium 
numero,  et  nobiscum  sedeat  in  clero,  luce  clarissima  confessionis 
iflasCrifl,  et  virtutis  ac  fidei  honore  sublimis,  &c.  Epist.  40,  p. 
225. 


OP    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  75 

was  searching  for  the  dead  body  of  her  parent,  he  ia 
found  with  symptoms  of  life,  drawn  out,  and  recov- 
ered from  the  mangled  remnants  of  dead  companions, 
he  has  survived,  against  his  own  desires.  But  the 
conspicuous  cause  of  his  continuance  is,  that  the  Lord 
might  join  him  to  the  clergy  of  our  church,  and  adorn 
with  glorious  priests  the  company  of  our  presbyters 
desolated  by  lapses.  And  when  God  shall  permit,  by 
his  protection,  my  presence  with  you,  his  promotion 
shall  be  effected  to  the  higher  order  in  his  worship.1 
In  the  meantime,  let  that  which  has  been  mentioned  be 
done,  that  we  may  accept  this  gift  of  God  with  thanks- 
giving, hoping,  from  divine  mercy,  more  ornaments  of 
the  same  kind,  that  the  strength  of  the  church  being 
renewed,  he  may  adorn  our  ecclesiastical  council 
with  men  of  like  mildness  and  humility.  Brethren, 
most  desired  and  dear,  my  wish  is  your  everlasting 
welfare." 

The  language  of  this  letter  plainly  shows  that  Nu- 
midicus  was  not  previously  a  presbyter ;  its  effect 
was  neither  an  ordination,  nor  a  direction  to  accom- 
plish one,  but  an  appointment  to  a  future  commission. 
A  ruling  elder  is  not  named  ;  and,  in  the  modern  sense 
of  the  phrase,  was  probably  an  idea  of  which  neither 
Cyprian,  nor  any  who  preceded  him,  had  formed  a 
conception.  "  Sedeat  hi  clero"  shows,  that  all  who 
sat  with  him,  were  clerical;  on  this  bench  he  was  to 
sit  prior  to  his  promotion.  If  promotion,  promovebitur, 
meant  any  thing  more  than  the  ceremony  of  ordina- 
tion, then  he  was  to  be  raised  to  a  bench  above  that 
of  the  clergy ;  but  such  there  was  not,  because  the 
nobiscum  determines  that  the  same  was  the  seat  also 
of  the  bishop.  In  no  enumeration  of  officers  in  the 
church,  found  in  Cyprian,  or  in  any  preceding  writer, 
has  this  imaginary  presbyter  ever  appeared ;  but  of 
the  diligence  with  which  the  nondescript  has   been 

1  Et  promovebitur  equidem  cum  Deus  permiserit,  ad  ampliorem 
locum  religionis  sux,  quando  in  prxsentiam,  proteg-ente  Domino, 
renerimus.     Epist.  40,  p.  225. 


7G  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

unsuccessfully  sought,  the  fanciful  perversion  of  this 
passage,  appearing  in  several  American  productions, 
will  remain  a  curious  monument.  Cyprian  defended 
his  opinion  against  the  reception  of  the  lapsed,  as  he 
did  his  escape  from  persecution,  by  his  dreams,  which 
he  promised  to  disclose  upon  his  return  to  the  church. m 
He  also  claimed  the  inspiration  of  suggestion.11  In 
the  cases  of  Aurelius  and  Celerinus,  who  had  become 
confessors,  having  the  divine  suffrage,  as  he  thought, 
he  needed  not  to  wait  for  a  consultation  with  the  peo- 
ple, and  ordained  them  to  be  readers.0 

Those  who  have  absurdly  taken  the  Tceotalata  of 
Paul  to  mean,  not  presiding,  but  subordinate  riding 
elders,  have  sapiently  understood  the  doctores  audien- 
tium,v  or  presbyters,  who  in  some  private  place  taught 
the  catechumeni,  to  be  a  distinct  order,  and  implying 
others  who  were  inferior.  The  letter  is  short.  "  Cy- 
prian to  his  brethren,  the  presbyters  and  deacons, 
greeting:  Most  esteemed  brethren,  lest  any  thing 
should  be  unknown  to  you,  either  of  what  has  been 
written  to  me,  or  of  what  I  have  returned  in  answer, 
I  have  sent  you  a  copy  of  each  epistle,  and  I  trust  that 
what  I  have  replied  will  not  be  displeasing  to  you. 
But  I  ought  in  this  letter  to  disclose  to  you  the  fact, 
that  from  the  pressure  of  necessity.  I  have  sent  the 
letters  to  the  clergy  of  the  city  [Rome.]  And  because 
it  was  proper  that  I  should  write  by  clergymen ;  but 
I  know  that  the  most  of  ours  are  absent,  and  that  the 
few  who  remain,  are  scarcely  sufficient  for  the  labor 
of  the  daily  service,  it  was  necessary  to  constitute 
some  new  ones,  who  might  be  sent.  Know,  therefore, 
that  I  have  made  Saturus  a  reader,  and  the  confessor 
Optatus  a  subdeacon,  whom  we  had  some  time  ago  in 
common  council,  placed  next  to  the  clergy;  either 
when  we  ga^ve  the  lesson  once  and  again  to  Saturus  on 
the  day  of  Easter ;  or  afterwards,  aid  modo  cum  pres- 

m   Epist.  xvi.  p.  194. 

"   Placuit   nobis,    Sancto    Spiritu    suggerente   et   Domino  per 
visiones  multas  et  manifestas  admonente.     Epist.  57,  p.  254. 
«  Pages  222,  223.  l>  Epist.  29. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  77 

byteris  doctoribus  lectores  diligenter  probaremus,  when  be- 
ing with  the  presbyters  occupied  in  teaching  [the  cate- 
chumeni,]  and  having  diligently  made  trial  of  readers, 
we  appointed  Optatus  among  the  readers  as  a  teacher 
of  the  hearers,  Optatum  inter  lectores  doctorem  audien- 
tium  constituimits ;  whilst  examining  whether  their 
qualifications  might  agree  with  those  which  ought  to 
be  in  such  as  are  preparing  for  the  clerical  office. 
Nothing,  therefore,  has  been  done  by  me  in  your  ab- 
sence ;  but  that  which  was  commenced  before  in  the 
common  council  of  us  all,  has  been  finished,  by  urgent 
necessity.  I  desire,  dear  brethren,  your  continued 
welfare,  and  remembrance  of  me.  Salute  the  brother- 
hood :  farewell."  In  this  letter,  we  have  a  descrip- 
tion of  that  teaching  which  is  performed  by  presby- 
ters and  readers,  of  the  andientcs,  or  catechumeni. 
Those  who  by  any  means  were  awakened,  and  had  a 
desire  to  understand  the  Christian  religion,  were  in- 
structed as  in  a  school ;  they  who  taught  them  were 
doctores,  teachers ;  and  if  it  were  their  only  employ- 
ment in  the  Christian  church,  they  were  denominated 
catechistsX-  These  catechumeni  are  expressly  distin- 
guished by  the  writer  from  the  people,  plebs,  by  the 
name  audientes.r  The  doctores  audientuim  were,  there- 
fore, as  such,  not  the  public  teachers  of  the  people,  but 
the  teachers  of  the  catechumeni.  This  instruction 
was  superintended,  and  partly  performed  by  the  pres- 
byters, but  the  readers  were  appointed  to  exercise 
their  talents  in  the  work.  And  this  letter  shows,  that 
Cyprian  and  those  presbyters,  as  teachers  of  the  cate- 
chumeni, in  private,  did,  on  some  such  occasion,  make 
trial  of  Optatus,  and  actually  appointed  him  to  be 
a  reader.  The  trial  of  Saturus  was  not  in  the  school 
of  the  catechumeni,  nor  are  the  presbyters  said  to 
have  been  then  occupied  in  teaching,  but  it  happened 

1  Audientibus  etiam — vigilantia  vestra  non  desit,  implorantibus 
divinam,  &c.  Epist.  18 — in  eorum  numero,  qui  apud  nos  catechi- 
zati  sunt-habentur.     Ep.  75,  p.  325.  .  • 

»  Vide  Epist.  18.  p.  198. 

h2 


78  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

in  the  congregation,  by  directing  him  to  read,  several 
times,  public  lessons  on  Easter. 

That  one  presbyter  presided — that  some  were 
chiefly  employed  in  discoursing  and  others  in  reading 
in  the  congregation  according  to  their  talents,  must 
be  supposed,  for  all  these  were  duties  belonging  to  the 
office  of  presbyters.  That  they  acted  also  as  doctores, 
patient  teachers  of  the  heathenish  audientes  or  cate- 
chumeni  in  private  places,  is  supported  by  abundant 
evidence,  besides  this  letter.  If  it  affords  a  tittle  of 
proof  that  presbyters  were  of  different  orders  or  kinds, 
let  it  be  shown  fairly,  and  not  by  the  mistakes  of  one 
or  two  good  men,  who  have  differed  from  numerous 
and  more  competent  judges. 

He  speaks  of  presbyters  as  "  honored  with  the  di- 
vine priesthood,  appointed  by  a  clerical  ministry, 
bound  to  serve  only  at  the  altar  and  the  sacrifices,  and 
under  obligation  to  find  leisure  for  nothing  but  prayers 
and  discourses.5  They  are  said  to  be  conjoined  with 
the  bishop  in  the  sacerdotal  honor.1  In  no  instance 
is  a  discrimination  made  between  presbyters,  except 
that  Cyprian  claimed  the  title  of  bishop,  whilst  he  de- 
nominated them  his  co-presbyters,  "  compresbyteri  nos- 
tri"a  The  modern  inferior  lay  or  ruling  elders  are 
never  once  mentioned  in  his  writings,  but  the  same 
profound  silence  as  to  this  unscriptural  order,  is  found 
in  Cyprian,  which  has  been  observed  in  every  writer 
before  him.  The  supposition  on  the  other  hand,  that 
the  eight  co-presbyters  of  Cyprian  were  over  distinct 
assemblies,  is  not  merely  gratuitous,  but  contrary  to 
many  passages  in  his  letters,  which  show  that  the 
flock  was  one  and  no  more.  The  presbytery  was  not 
of  many  charges,  but  of  one;  and  the  bishop  not  a 
mere  moderator,  but  a  president  of  the  worshiping 

*  Singuli  divino  sacerdotio  honorati,  et  in  clcrico  ministerio  con- 
stituti,  non  nisi  altari,  et  sacrificio  deservire,  et  precibus  atque  ora- 
tionibus  vacare  debeant.     Page  109. 

*  Qui  cum  episcopo  prcsbyteri  sacerdotali  honore  conjuncti.  p. 
272. 

u  Page  169. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  79 

assembly,  as  well  as  of  the  deliberating  and  judging 
church-presbytery. 

That  upon  the  demise  of  a  bishop  his  place  was 
filled  by  an  election  of  the  people/  and  that  the  suc- 
cessful presbyter  was  commissioned  by  the  bishops  of 
other  churches,  we  do  at  present  read  in  the  letters  of 
Cyprian.  At  any  prior  period  this  new  order  does  not 
satisfactorily  appear.  To  them  Cyprian  concedes  the 
liberty  of  doing  what  they  choose,w  no  one  of  them 
being  accountable  to  any  other  bishop,x  but  to  God 
only.y  Also,  every  bishop  is  the  vicar  of  Christ,2-  over 
the  Christians,  who  reside  within  the  geographical 
precincts  of  his  own  parish ;  and  every  teacher  there, 
not  of  his  church,  be  his  doctrines  what  they  may,  is 
a  schismatic.aa 

Bishops  were  entitled  to  the  same  honor,  and  the 
same  obedience,  which  was  due  to  the  high-priest 
among  the  Jews,  and  the  Mosaic  laws  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  priesthood,  and  the  punishment  of  offenders, 
were  considered  by  Cyprian  as  still  in  force.  Thus 
was  paved  the  way  for  all  the  mischief  and  bloodshed 
that  have  followed  in  the  church.  Cyprian's  declara- 
tion that  "  he  had  determined  to  do  nothing  without 
the  presbytery,"  and  his  apologies,  when  he  made 
Saturus  a  reader,  and  Optatus  a  subdeacon ;  when 
also  he  promoted  Aurelius  and  Celerinus,  and  ap- 
pointed Numidicus  to  be  futurely  ordained  to  be  a 
presbyter,  only  show  that  he  was  restrained  by  the 
well  known  antecedent  usages  in  the  church ;  but  his 
doing  the  thing,  was  full  proof  that  he  did  not  think  as 
he  spoke,  but  intended  to  arrogate  higher  powers,  his 

v  Populi  universi  suffragio.     Epist.  59,  p.  261. 

w  Unus  quisque  episcoporum  quod  putat  faciat  habens  arbitrii 
sui  liberam  potestatem.     Ep.  73. 

x  Outs  yctg  tk  t7ri(rx.o?rov  ecturov  kxQivtdv-iv,  bis  language  in  the 
first  council  of  Carthage.     Zonarae,  p.  275. 

y  Actum  suum  disponit  et  dirigit  unusquisque  episcopus  ration- 
em  sui  Domino  redditurus.     Ep.  55. 

*■   Judex  vice  Christi  cogitatur.     Ep.  39. 

aa  Nee  curiosos  esse  debere  quid  ille  doceat,  cum  foris  doceat. 
Epist.  55. 


80  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

piety  and  veracity  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 
Several  passages  in  his  letters  accord  with  the  original 
idea  of  two  orders,  those  in  authority,  propositi,  and 
deacons.  Yet  having  been  made  a  bishop  by  the 
votes  of  the  peoplebb  against  the  will  of  five-eighths  of 
the  presbyters,  he  was  ever  vigilant  to  support  himself 
by  encroachments  on  the  rights  of  the  presbytery,  and 
indefatigable  in  his  exertions  to  convince  his  colleagues 
of  their  transcendent  powers. 

The  ancient  form  of  the  designation  of  a  Ttgotolas,  or 
presiding  presbyter,  is  not  shown.  But  in  this  book 
it  is  denominated  an  ordination,  and  said  to  be  by  im- 
position of  hands.cc  The  ordination  of  Cyprian,  in 
whatsoever  manner,  wTas  probably  by  bishops,  because 
of  the  opposition  of  all  the  presbyters  but  three,  as 
those  of  Corneliusdd  and  others  are  expressed  to  have 
been.  This  device  exalted  bishops  into  a  new  and 
superior,  though  unscriptural  order.  They  became 
colleagues,  maintained  correspondence,  frequently  as- 
sembled, made  laws,  and  supported  each  other's  dig- 
nity and  power. 

In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  instead  of  an  impo- 
sition of  hands,  the  deacons  held  the  open  gospels  upon 
the  head  of  the  intended  bishop,  during  the  conse- 
crating prayer.  Nor  is  x^^oetaia,  that  we  find,  used 
either  in  the  canons  or  the  constitutions  for  the  ordina- 
tion of  a  bishop,  but  alwrays  ^f^or'ona.  That  these 
constitutions  were  not  written  by  the  apostles  is  cer- 
tain ;  that  they  were  not  known  to  Cyprian  is  clear, 
for  he  would  have  used  them  ;  that  they  did  not  then 
exist  is  probable,  because  first  quoted  by  Epiphanius  ; 
that  imposition  of  hands  should  have  been  in  practice 
in  Cyprian's    day,  or  before   the  constitutions  were 

bb  Populi  universi  suffragio.     Ep.  59,  52. 

«  Ep.  67. 

dJ  That  Cornelius,  after  his  ordination  as  a  presbyter,  was  ordain- 
ed a  bishop  of  Rome,  Cyprian  expressly  asserts.  Ep.  69.  No  co- 
temporary  evidence  which  we  have  ever  seen,  or  of  which  we  have 
heard,  establishes  the  same  thing  of  any  preceding  bishop  of  Rome. 
Certainly  Fabrianus,  his  immediate  predecessor,  was  made  of  a 
layman  a  bishop. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  81 

made,  is  unaccountable  and  incredible,  because  it 
must  have  been  given  in  them.  Whatever,  therefore, 
appears  in  Cyprian  concerning  imposition  of  hands> 
upon  one  who  was  already  an  elder,  is  probably  an 
interpolation.  That  Cyprian  was  beheaded  in  258 
may  be  received,  but  his  life  by  Pontius,  though  an- 
cient, deserves  very  little  respect. 

The  works  of  Cyprian,  if  unadulterated,  discover  a 
new  order  of  presbyters  by  episcopal  ordination,  also 
readers,  subdeacons,  acolyths,  and  virgins.  By  the 
same  authority  also  are  established  sacrifices  for  the 
dead,  the  intercession  of  deceased  saints  for  the  living, 
holy  water  and  remission  of  sins  by  baptism,  and  that 
there  is  no  salvation  out  of  the  church.  He  inculcated 
the  doctrine  of  the  keys,  but  although  Rome  was 
greater  than  Carthage,  he  denied  that  Stephen  had 
more  power  than  he  possessed  ;  and  died  under  the 
anathema  of  the  successor  of  Peter.  What  has  been 
its  effect  on  him,  and  whether  his  subsequent  canoni- 
zation has  afforded  him  relief,  another  day  will  dis- 
close. 


SECTION    IX. 

Firmilian  speaks  of  a  plurality  of  teachers  in  the  same  church;  of  annual 
meetings  of  the  presidents  and  presbyters;  and  of  the  right  of  presbyters  to 
baptize,  impose  hands  and  ordain;  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  and  his  genu- 
ine writings;  his  first  episcopal  charge  was  one  deacon  and  seventeen  indi- 
viduals. Hitherto  every  bishop  has  been  stick  in  one  worshiping  assembly 
only.     Of  Methodius.     Of  Arnobius.     Of  Lactantius  and  his  vnitings. 

Firmilian  presided  in  the  church  at  Cassarea,  in  Cap- 
padocia.  He  wrote  an  epistle  in  Greek,  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  third  century,  in  answer  to  a  letter  which 
he  had  received  from  Cyprian,  by  the  hands  of  Roga- 
tian,  a  deacon.  A  translation  only  remains,  which 
appears  in  the  works  of  Cyprian,  and  is  attributed  to 
hima  When  Firmilian  speaks  of  the  abounding  of 
knowledge,  and  the  multiplication  of  teachers,  as  an 
event  anticipated  by  an  apostle,  and  provided  against 
by  the  rule,  that  one  should  be  silent,  if  any  thing  were 
revealed  to  another,  he  alludes  not  obscurely  to  a  plu- 
rality of  teachers  in  the  respective  churches.b  After- 
wards he  observes;  "It  obtains  among  us  necessarily, 
that  through  successive  years,  the  presbyters  and 
presidents  meet  together,  to  set  in  order  those  things, 
which  have  been  committed  to  our^care ;  and  if  there 
be  any  matters  of  more  serious  importance,  that  they 
may  be  directed,   by  public   advice."0       In  another 

Elace,  having  asserted  that  those  who  are  at  Rome, 
ave  not  in  all  respects  observed  those  things  which 
were  delivered  from  the  first,  and  that  they  in  vainpre- 

a    Vide  Cyprian,  Epist.  75.  p.  319. 

b  1  Corinth,  xiv.  30. 

o  Qua  ex  causa  necessario  fit  ut  per  singnlos  annos,  seniores 
et  propositi  in  unum  conveniamus  ad  disponenda  ea,  qus  curse 
nostrx  commissa  sunt,  ut  siqua  gTaviora  sunt,  communi  consilio 
diriguntur . 


THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,    &C.  83 

tend  the  authority  of  the  apostles,  he  afterwards  af- 
firms ;  "  that  all  power  and  grace  are  placed  in  the 
church,  where  the  elders  preside,  who  have  the  power 
also  of  baptizing,  and  of  imposing  the  hands,  and  of 
ordaining.  For  as  it  is  not  lawful  for  a  heretic  to 
ordain,  nor  to  impose  the  hands,  so  neither  to  baptize, 
nor  to  do  any  thing  sacred,  or  spiritual;  seeing  he  is  a 
stranger  to  that  holiness  which  is  spiritual  and  the 
work  of  God."d  The  epistle  closes  with  a  salutation 
directed  to  the  bishops  and  clergy  in  Africa.  The 
word  elders  has  been  no  where  else  found  in  the  epis- 
tle. In  the  first  instance,  they  are  named  before  their 
presidents,  in  a  description  of  the  assembling  of  the 
officers  of  many  churches  in  an  annual  council;  and 
in  the  second,  without  particularizing  the  presiding 
presbyters,  although  speaking  of  a  single  church,  he 
means  the  whole  bench.  Of  presbyters  he  affirms, 
that  they  have  the  lawful  right  to  administer  baptism, 
to  impose  hands  and  to  ordain.  This  venerable  man 
unquestionably  represents  facts,  as  they  were  in  his 
day;  and  is  a  positive  and  credible  witness,  that  the 
presidents  of  the  churches,  called  bishops  in  the  last 
sentence  of  the  letter,  had  not,  as  yet,  at  least  in  Asia, 
monopolized  the  power  of  ordination.  In  the  original 
letter,  the  term  Hgosf/ulis  or  u^o^yovftsvoi,  was  most  pro- 
bably used,  where  we  read  propositi,  which  we  have 
rendered  presidents,  they  being  undoubtedly  the  bishops, 
who  moderated  the  board  of  presbyters,  in  the  respec- 
tive congregations.  The  churches  of  Cappadocia 
thus  appear  to  have  retained  the  names  of  their  offi- 
cers, which  had  been  given  by  the  apostles  and  evan- 
gelists at  the  period  of  their  creation.  The  majores 
natu,  seniores  or  elders,  being  baptizers  and  ordainers, 
were  of  course  not  laymen.  Blondell  on  this  testi- 
mony of  Firmilian  says,  "nequis  ullos  ab  ordinationum 
jure  seniores  arcendos  putet;"  which  though  directed 

d  Omnis  potestas  et  gratia  in  ecclesia  constituta  sit,  ubi  presi- 
dent majores  natu,  qui  et  baptizandi,  et  manum  imponendi  et  or- 
dinandi possident  potestatem,  &c. 


84  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

against  an  ordination  exclusively  episcopal,  with  no 
less  propriety  may  be  spoken  against  lay  presbyters; 
because  the  right  to  ordain  appearing  thus  to  have 
been  vested  in  elders,  they  were  all  clerical.  Neither 
can  the  monopoly  of  the  ordaining  power  by  bishops, 
nor  the  protrusion  of  elders  from  the  clerical  office,  be 
vindicated,  except  by  conceding  to  the  church  the  right 
of  erecting  new  offices  for  its  government  which  is  an 
invasion  of  the  rightful  authority  of  the  great  Head  of 
the  church. 

Tiieodorus,  who  was  afterwards  denominated  Gre- 
gory, and  by  the  credulity  of  his  age,  Thaumaiurgus, 
was  a  native  of  Pontus,  and  of  an  honourable  pagan 
family.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  lost  his  father.  Af- 
terwards he  became  the  pupil  of  Origen,  at  Csesarea 
in  Palestine,  with  whom  he  studied  five  years,  and  at 
length  the  rt^oalat*i?,e  or  bishop  of  the  church  at  Neo 
Cassarea  in  Pontus;  which  according  to  Eusebius  he 
retained  until  his  death,  A.  D.  265.  His  oration  pro- 
nounced on  leaving  Origen,  which  still  remains,  is  elo- 
quent, but  adulatory.  Yet  it  speaks  him  then  a  Chris- 
tian, which  is  more  than  can  be  collected  from  the  Phi- 
localia.  His  Metaphrasis  of  the  Ecclesiastes,  or  as 
Jerom  styles  it,  his  Ecphrasis,  is  a  short,  practical  and 
pleasing  representation  of  the  experience  and  advice 
of  the  aged  wise-man.  The  creed  ascribed  to  Thau- 
maturgus  by  Gregory  Nyssen,  in  which  it  is  affirmed, 
"that  there  is  in  the  Trinity  nothing  created,  and  no- 
thing subordinate,"1"  has  been  thought  by  some  to  bear 
the  marks  of  a  later  hand,  but  the  autograph  of  a 
creed,  in  some  form,  probably  existed  when  Nyssen 
wrote.  Trie  exposition  of  faith,g  and  the  twelve  ana- 
themas, also  prinled  with  his  works  are  evidently  of 
times  more  modern.  His  eleven  canons,  which  he 
gave  as  advice  for  the  government  of  a  society,  upon 
which  barbarians  had  made  an  incursion  in  the  reign  of 

e    TXgotj-lxTcv  t»?  tx*x»fl"/*c  v/uaiv  T^nyc^iou. — Basil.  Epis.  62. 
f  Ovlitvv  urie-lov  t/  yj  S'oukov  a  t»  TfixS't,  &.c.  Greg.  Nys.  2.   Vol. 
979.  Greg.  Thaum.  p.  1. 
S  T.itQtrti  T»f  x.a.Tci{Atgo{  7rivlia:;.  Greg.  Thaum.  p,97. 


OF   CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  85 

Gallienus,  appear  founded  in  Christian  prudence.  The 
last  canon  has  been  doubted  to  be  genuine,  but  its  de- 
scription of  the  hearers,  as  standing  next  within  the 
door;  the  catechumens  as  standing  immediately  be- 
fore them,  and  behind  the  congregation  of  believers; 
and  of  the  exclusion  of  the  two  former  after  the  read- 
ing of  the  Scriptures  and  the  delivery  of  a  discourse, 
and  before  the  prayers  and  the  sacramental  ordinance, 
may  have  accorded  with  the  manner  of  conducting 
public  worship  in  some  places,  at  the  period  of  this  fa- 
ther. Baronius  and  Du  Pin  agree  in  the  rejection  of 
all  the  sermons  ascribed  to  him,  and  found  with  his 
works;  and  also  of  the  treatise  concerning  the  soul; 
all  of  which  evidently  appear  to  have  been  the  produc- 
tions of  a  later  age.  Gregory  Nyssen,  who  lived  a 
century  after  him,  affirms,  as  others  also  do,  that  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Neo  Cresarea  in  Pontus  against 
his  inclination,  and  in  his  absence,1'  by  Phedimus  who 
presided  over  (xa^yo^nw)  the  church  of  Amasia,  a 
neighbouring  city,  the  birth  place  of  Strabo.  But  it  is 
subjoined,  that  after  a  little  time,  the  usual  rites  were 
accomplished  upon  him.  That  extraordinary  powers 
were  conferred  by  this  ordination,  was  the  belief  of  the 
antistes  of  Amasia  himself;  and  Gregory  Nyssen  has 
labored  with  equal  assiduity  and  credulity  to  establish 
the  same  thing.  It  is  also  the  concurrent  testimony  of 
others,  that  Gregory  Thaumaturgus  said  at  his  death, 
he  had  had  but  seventeen  Christians  in  his  charge,  when 
he  was  ordained.  His  episcopal  authority  could  there- 
fore have  been  neither  over  presbyters,  for  his  only 
subordinate  was  one  deacon;  nor  diocesan,  for  he  had 
the  oversight  of  no  more  than  seventeen  people.  This 
fact,  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  history  of  the 
church  prior  to  this  period,  evinces,  that  there  were 
but  two  orders,  one  to  preach  and  rule,  and  the  other 
to  serve.  The  like  silence  as  to  presbyters  is  observ- 
ed, in  the  account  of  his  ordination  of  Alexander, 
upon  the  invitation  of  the  church  of  Comana.     Nys- 

h  ret  o-etpctrua;  ov  srstgovra.    Greg.  Nyss.  2.  vol.  p.  979. 
I 


68  THE   PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

sen  represents  him  as  superseding  the  suffrages  of  the 
people,  by  substituting  and  ordaining  a  collier,  who 
had  been  mentioned  sarcastically  as  the  dregs  of  the 
people.'  No  presbyters  are  mentioned;  there  was  one 
ordainer,  one  ordained,  and  one  flock.  Basil  in  vindi- 
cation of  the  antiquity  of  the  doxology,  in  which  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  named,  having  alleged,  that  Gregory 
Thaumaturgus  had  given  it  to  the  church  at  Neo 
Cassarea  in  Pontus,  which  was  still  in  the  use  of  it, 
has  ranked  his  spiritual  gifts  with  those  of  the  pro* 
phets  and  apostles.k  But  though  Basil,  and  his  brother 
Gregory  Nyssen,  with  some  in  our  own  day,  have 
deemed  him  an  extraordinary  man;  yet  no  evidence 
of  such  wonder-working  powers  appearing  in  his  writ- 
ings, it  is  probably  safer  to  impute  the  strange  things 
related  by  Nyssen,  to  credulity;  and  to  account  him 
no  more  than  a  faithful  and  successful  pastor  of  a  sin- 
gle flock,  which  by  his  instrumentality,  had  been  col- 
lected in  a  city  almost  wholly  given  to  idolatry.  In 
all  that  remains  of  this  father,  nothing  has  been  found 
either  of  lay  presbyters,  or  of  episcopal  diocesan  au- 
thority. If,  as  Jerom,  Theodoret,  and  others,  have  al- 
leged, he  was  of  higher  estimation,  than  his  brother 
Athenodorus,  Firmilian,  Helenus,  and  other  bishops  of 
his  day,  the  inference  is  fair,  that  they  also  were  min- 
isters of  single  congregations,  as  all  the  bishops,  who 
have  fallen  hitherto  under  our  notice  have  certainly 
been. 

Of  the  productions  of  Methodius,  mentioned  by  Je- 
rom, Photius,  and  others,  several  fragments  with  "the 
banquet  of  the  virgins,"  have  reached  our  times. 
Having  been  written  about  the  end  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, they  have  also  been  examined  with  care,  but 
found  to  contain  nothing,  that  relates  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  church,  or  that  can  be  of  any  importance. 
His  representations  of  Origen  are  feeble,  and  serve 
merely  to  show,  that  Methodius  was  not  carried  away 

»  Tlpoirscyet  Ta>  ©sa>  Sitt  iigwTv vac  tcv  ctvigu.  x,*rx  toy  rsvcu/tr^utnv 
Tgoviv  TiAtwo-its.     Greg.  Nvss.  2  vol.  p.  9'J5. 
k  Basil,  op.  2.  vol.  p.  160. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  87 

by  such  dreams,  though  at  best  a  miserable  commen- 
tator of  the  sacred  volumes.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  bishop,  that  is  in  the  sense  of  the  term,  in  his  day, 
the  presiding  presbyter  of  a  single  congregation,  but 
where  his  particular  charge  was,  is  not  settled.  He 
probably  lived  in  Lycia,  and  died  a  martyr  under  the 
Diocletian  persecution. 

Arnobius  lived  about  the  termination  of  the  third  cen- 
tury, and  wrote  as  a  Christian.1  He  is  said  neverthe- 
less, by  Jerom,  to  have  been  at  the  time  of  writing  his 
seven  books,  a  heathen,  but  to  have  had  a  dream 
which  had  awakened  him,  whilst  a  teacher  of  rhetoric 
at  Sicca  in  Africa.  That  his  former  opposition  to  the 
Gospel  prevented  the  confidence,  necessary  to  a  re- 
ception into  the  church,  until  his  books  evinced  his  sin- 
cerity. This  representation  is  rendered  probable  by 
the  occasional,  but  palpable  proofs  of  defective  reli- 
gious instruction,  which  occur  in  his  books.  Neverthe- 
less on  several  points,  disputed  in  our  day,  he  speaks 
with  admirable  clearness  and  precision.1" 

His  seven  books  are  in  opposition  unto  those  idola- 
tries of  which  he  had  been  a  zealous  advocate.  On 
the  officers,  and  government  of  the  church,  nothing 
has  occurred,  and  consequently,  as  in  every  other  in- 
stance, not  a  word  in  support  of  lay  presbyters. 

Lucius  Callus  Firmlanus  Lactantius  is  supposed  to 
have  received  the  last  name  from  his  flowing  style,  and 
Firmianus  from  Fermum  in  Italy.  But  he  was  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric  in  Africa,  where  he  had  been  the 

l  "Trecenti  sunt  anni  ferme,  minus  vel  plus  aliquid,  ex  quo 
ccepimus  esseChristiani."  Arnob.  lib.  i.  p.  5. 

m  He  calls  original  corruption,  "vitium  infirmitatis  ingenita:." 
On  the  divinity  of  Christ,  after  having-  spoken  of  him  as  more 
powerful  than  the  fates,  he  says,  "Deus  ille  sublimis  fuit,  Deus  ra- 
dice  ab  intima,  Deus  ab  incognitis  regnis,  et  ab  omnium  principe, 
Deus  sospitator  est  missus,"  &c.  He  also  discriminates  with  accu- 
racy between  his  divine  and  human  natures.  To  the  question  why 
he  took  the  form  of  a  man?  he  asks  in  answer,  "an  aliter  potuit  in- 
visibilis  ilia  vis — inferre  et  accommodare  se  mundo,"  &c.  To  the 
question,  who  was  it  that  died?  he  answers,  "Homo,  quern  induerat, 
et  secum  ipse  portabat — mors  ilia,  quam  dicitis,  assumpti  hominis 
fuit,  non  ipsiusj  gestaminis  non  gestantis,  Etc. 


88  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,  &C. 

pupil  of  Arnobius,  from  whence  he  was  removed  by- 
Diocletian  to  Nicomedia  in  Bythinia,  and  afterwards 
into  Gaul  to  be  the  instructor  of  Crispus,  the  son  of 
Constantine.  His  writings  have  been  placed  between 
A.  D.  302  and  320.  His  seven  books  of  institutions, 
his  book  on  the  anger  of  God,  and  another  on  the  work 
of  God  have  survived  unto  our  day.  The  book  on  the 
deaths  of  the  persecutors  is  not  in  his  style.  It  must 
nevertheless  have  been  written  by  some  person,  soon 
after  the  Diocletian  persecution.  In  one  passage  in 
Ch.  xy.  the  writer  says,  "Comprehensi  Presbyteri  ac 
ministri,  et  sine  ulla  probatione  ad  confessionem  dam- 
nati,  cum  omnibus  suis  deducebantur:"  which  Dr.  Bur- 
net has  rendered;  "Some  presbyters  and  deacons  were 
seized  on,  and  without  any  proof  against  them,  they 
were  condemned  and  executed."  If  the  "cum  omni- 
bus suis,"  be  meant  of  the  people  whose  worship  they 
conducted,  wTe  have  the  primitive  idea  of  a  church; 
but  howsoever  understood,  there  is  no  evidence  either 
of  the  exaltation,  or  prostration  of  the  one  original 
ordinary  preaching  office.  The  several  poems  attri- 
buted to  Lactantius  are  unworthy  of  credit.  His  nu- 
merous doctrinal  mistakes  are  of  common  observa- 
tion, and  in  some  editions  collected  into  one  view.  Not 
having  been  an  ecclesiastic,  his  religion,  like  that  of 
Justin,  Tatian  and  Arnobius  appears  to  have  been  his 
philosophy.  Lactantius  speaks  with  much  commen- 
dation both  of  Tertullian  and  Cyprian,  but  has  left, 
we  believe,  not  a  wrord  of  the  clerical  standing  ox 
grade  of  any  one  in  the  church.11 

n  Lactant.  Institut.  Lib.  v.  S.  1. 


SECTION  X. 


Eusebius,  his  character,  an  Arian ;  his  object  power.- — In  favor  with  Con- 
stantine. — His  advantages,  credulity,  afld  cunning  great. — Ecclesiastic 
authority  hiving  been  conferred  vpon  the  Christians  by  an  establishment  in 
his  day,  he  aimed  to  conceal  the  truth  of  the  former  state  of  the  church. — His 
history  presents  the  poor  and  persecuted  pastors  of  single  churches  in  the 
dress  of  the  bishops,  whom  Constantine  in  the  fourth  century  had  elevated  to 
rank  and  jwwer. — Ttie  permission  of  one  church  in  a  city,  the  position 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  communicated  only  by  the  hands  of  the  presiding 
presbyter,  or  bishop,  required  only  increase  of  numbers  to  produce  diocesan 
episcopacy,  for  which  the  church  was  ripe  at  the  council  of  Nice. 

Eusebius,  distinguished  by  the  additions  Pamphilus, 
Ceesariensis,  and  Pakestinus,  received  his  Christian  in- 
struction from  Dorotheus,  a  presbyter  of  Antioch : 
his  parentage  is  unknown.  The  intimate  friend  of 
Pamphilus,  he  taught  in  his  school  at  Cesarea,  af- 
ter whose  martyrdom,  A.  D.  300,  he  assumed  his 
name ;  and,  sometime  prior  to  320,  became  bishop  of 
the  church  in  that  city. 

Not  less  a  courtier  than  theologist,  he  gained  and 
preserved  the  confidence  of  Constantine,  and  was 
honored  with  more  than  ordinary  familiarity.  To 
him  was  assigned  the  first  seat  at  the  emperor's  right 
hand  in  the  council  of  Nice,  and  to  address  him  in 
their  behalf.a  He  was  also  appointed  to  dedicate 
Constantine's  temple  at  Jerusalem ;  and,  at  different 
times,  to  make  two  public  orations,  at  the  palace  at 
Constantinople. 

Jerom  calls   Eusebius  a  defender    and    standard 

a  Some  think  Eustathius,  and  others  that  Alexander  had  this 
honor,  but  the  omission  of  the  name  by  Eusebius,  (Life  of  Con- 
stantine, lib.  iii.  c.  xi.)  unless  he  had  been  the  person  had  been 
inexcusable. 

i2 


90  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

bearer  of  the  Arian  faction.b  It  was  also  the  judg- 
ment of  Photiusc  that  he  was  an  Arian  blasphemer. 
He  denominated  Christ  "  a  philosopher,  and  a  truly 
pious  man  ;"d  often  spoke  of  Christianity  as  a  resto- 
ration of  the  ancient  religion  of  nature,  and  a  substitu- 
tion of  moral  virtues  in  the  place  of  bloody  sacrifices ; 
and  always  inveighed  against  the  consubstantiality, 
o/jt,oov6ta,  of  the  Son  as  Sabellianism.  If  this  were  the 
only  spot  in  his  character,  however  fatal  to  himself,  it 
would  not  prevent  his  competency  as  a  witness  ;  but 
his  disingenuousness,  a  trait  of  character  appearing 
in  his  profession  of  religion,  his  doctrines,  his  conduct 
in  the  council  of  Nice,  his  treatment  of  the  Athana- 
sians,  in  his  adulation  of  Constantine,  and  his  repre- 
sentations of  the  sacred  canon,  must  affect  the  credi- 
bility of  the  historical  representations  he  has  given  of 
the  church.  His  Christianity  was  philosophy,  his  piety 
prudence,  and  his  highest  zeal  the  establishment  of  the 
visible  church.  That  he  sacrificed  to  idols,  and  thus 
escaped  martyrdom,  was  openly  charged  upon  him, 
and  believed.  Such  prudent  policy  restrained  the 
violence  of  passion,  and  saved  him  from  much  open 
opposition. 

He  wrote  fifteen  books  of  evangelical  preparation, 
and  twenty  of  evangelical  demonstration ;  of  the  lat- 
ter, the  first  ten  only  remain.  Next  followed  his 
Chronicle,  and  then  his  Ecclesiastical  History,  in  ten 
books.  He  also  left  four  books  of  the  life  of  Constan- 
tine ;  a  treatise  against  Hierocles,  in  defence  of  Chris- 
tianity ;  five  books  against  Marcellus ;  a  small  gazet- 
teer of  the  Scriptures,  in  two  books,  but  the  last  only 
survives  ;  an  Oration  in  praise  of  Constantine  ;  com- 

b  — impietatis  Arii  apertissimus  propugnator.  Vol.  i.  p.  483. 
Ariarue — signifer  factionis.     Page  493. 

c  Ev  iroXAoi;  arliv  ttwrov  iSuv  tov  viov  fixxs-QH/uiLVvla.,  xm  ftwrigcv 
ttilicv  kaKovvto. — x.x.1  o.>.hx  Tivt  ApuxviKYi;  Xv<ra-n;. — Fhotii  Biblioth. 
p.  12. 

d  — $^.0  3-&<}>5f  apt,  x.2.1  «>.;)6s;c  tv<rt/2»;. — Dem.  Evang.  Lib.  iii. 
p.  127. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  91 

mentaries  on  the  Psalms  and  on  Isaiah.  His  numerous 
other  works  have  perished. 

It  was  in  the  life-time  of  Eusebius,  and  much  owing 
to  his  influence,  that  the  Christian  church  received  the 
accession  of  worldly  power,  riches,  and  honor,  tempt- 
ations of  baleful  influence.  His  advantages  for  writ- 
ing a  history  were  great ;  he  mentions  his  access  to 
the  library  collected  by  Pamphilus6  and  to  that  also 
of  Alexander  at  Jerusalem/  but  the  intimate  of  Con- 
stantine  might  command  whatever  evidence  the  civil- 
ized world  possessed.  What  he  wrote  of  his  own 
days,  is  more  credible ;  his  account  of  the  earlier  ages 
of  the  church  obviously  bears,  whether  intentionally 
or  not,  a  conformity  to  the  then  modern  ideas  of  epis- 
copal domination.  And  so  careful  has  he  been  to  con- 
ceal the  gradual  progress  of  the  rtgosolulss,  presiding 
presbyters,  into  the  parochial,  diocesan,  and  metropoli- 
tan bishops,  that  Blondell  was  able  to  find  in  his 
works,  but  three  passages,  in  which  he  could  discover 
a  hint  of  the  ancient  state  of  things  ;  and  even  those 
three  have  been  written  with  so  much  caution,  that 
they  must  be  abandoned  as  doubtful  proofs.  His 
credulity  in  some  things,  forms  so  strange  a  contrast 
with  his  discernment  and  caution  in  others,  that  their 
consistency  is  an  enigma,  solvible  only  at  the  expense 
of  his  moral  character.  The  success  of  a  prayer  of  a 
deceased  martyr,  and  her  apparition  to  Basilicles  ;g  the 
efficacy  of  the  prayer  of  Narcissus,  whereby  water 
was  turned  to  oil  ;h  and  of  a  piece  of  sacramental 
bread,  sent  by  a  child  to  a  dying  man  for  the  removal 
of  his  guilt,1  appear  to  have  been  firmly  believed  by 
Eusebius.  But  how  a  rational  believer,  who  prized 
the  Christian  religion  only  as  a  system  of  philosophy, 
could  have  been  firmly  persuaded  of  such  incredible 
things,  is  a  difficult  problem. 

When  he  denominates  those  by  whom  the  first  pro- 


e  Eccles.  Hist.  Lib.  vi.  C  8.  f  Ibid.  Lib.  vi.  c.  22. 

g  Lib.  vi.  c.  5.  h  Ibid.  c.  9. 

»  Ibid.  c.  44. 


92  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

mulgation  of  the  gospel  was  effected,  evangelists  and 
apostles,  tvayyifaolav  xav  artoo7uhuv,k  he  follows  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  and  when  describing  a  period  somewhat  later, 
he  substitutes  pastors  and  evangelists,  itoi/xsvss  xai  svay~ 
y£K(,a7ai,x  he  is  still  not  censurable,  if  by  7toifisvs?  he  in- 
tended the  bench  of  presbyters  in  every  church  ;  but 
if  by  pastors,  be  meant  the  Ttgoeolulis,  presidents  only 
of  the  respective  congregations,  he  misrepresents  the 
condition  of  the  churches,  at  the  period  of  which  he 
there  treats.  And  this  sense  is  most  probable,  because 
he  has  used  ftgosolults  and  jtoi^va  as  convertible  terms.™ 
It  had  been  in  the  preceding  ages  accounted  one  cha- 
racteristic of  the  orthodoxy  of  a  church,  that  it  could 
show  a  line  of  presiding  presbyters,  or  bishops,  from 
the  days  of  the  apostles ;  and  we  have  seen,  that 
Irenseus  and  others,  have  been  careful  to  record  their 
names ;  Eusebius,  from  motives  of  another  kind,  not 
to  be  mistaken,  has  devoted  a  number  of  his  chapters 
to  the  perpetuation  of  the  successions  in  the  original 
churches;  and  has  noticed,  with  great  emphasis, 
many  individuals  of  different  ages,  in  distinct  chapters, 
the  enumeration  of  whose  names,  with  whatever  he 
has  said  of  them,  might  have  been  exhibited  together, 
with  far  less  labor,  but  not  with  equal  pomp.  His  ef- 
forts have  had  their  premeditated  effect.  He  has 
clothed  the  early  presiding  bishops  in  the  dress  of 
bishops  of  the  fourth  century.  His  example  has  been 
followed.  It  has  been  asserted,  "  that  it  is  as  impossi- 
ble to  doubt,  whether  there  was  a  succession  of  bish- 
ops from  the  apostles,  as  it  would  be  to  call  in  ques- 
tion the  succession  of  Roman  emperors  from  Julius 
Cassar."  This  is  true  of  the  name,  but  a  misrepresen- 
tation of  facts.  The  imper at ores,  among  the  Romans, 
when  the  word  came  first  into  use,  differed  not  more 
in  power  and  dignity  from  those  emperors  who  after- 
wards governed  the  civilized  world,  than  the  bench  of 
presbyters,  or  bishops,  whom  the  apostles  and  evange- 

k  Lib.  iii.  c.  3.  1  Lib.  iii.  c.  37. 

»  Lib.  viii.  2d.  Suppt.  c.  12. 


OF   CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  93 

lists  placed  in  the  respective  churches,  did  from  the 
lordly  dignitaries,  who  have  succeeded  in  later  ages 
to  the  title  of  bishop.  It  is  also  as  correct  to  apply 
the  term  emperor,  in  its  modern  sense,  to  every  com- 
mander of  an  ancient  Roman  band,  as  it  is  to  use  the 
word  bishop  in  its  modern  European  meaning,  to  de- 
signate the  early  persecuted  and  humble  followers  of 
the  fishermen  of  Galilee.  In  like  manner  to  degrade 
the  presbyters,  who  were  the  highest  kind  of  officers 
in  every  Christian  church, by  making  a  portion  of  them 
laymen,  is  as  unscriptural  an  error,  as  the  erection  of 
the  primus  presbyter  in  every  church,  to  be  the  lord 
of  his  brethren,  whether  in  the  character  of  a  diocesan, 
metropolitan,  patriarch,  or  pope.  In  the  former  three 
centuries,  the  influence  and  the  power  of  these  primi 
among  the  presbyters,  we  have  seen  gradually  in- 
creasing, until  a  parochial  episcopacy  became  every- 
where established.  But  from  the  time  of  Constantine 
and  Eusebius,  when  the  church,  becoming  more  cor- 
rupt, was  visited  with  riches  and  honors,  a  diocesan, 
and,  as  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice  discover,  a 
metropolitan  episcopacy  prevailed.  Bishops  seem  to 
have  stepped  up  to  a  more  elevated  seat,  and  to  have 
been  accounted  henceforth  of  a  higher  order.  They 
were  the  political  friends  of  Constantine,  and  treated 
by  him  with  discriminating  attention.  When  he  sent 
orders  to  Chrestus,  bishop  of  Syracuse,  summoning 
him  to  a  synod,  he  directed  him  to  associate  with  him- 
self two  of  the  second  bench,  at  his  own  election;  and 
also  to  bring  three  servants,  all  at  the  public  expense." 
But  although  the  degradation  of  presbyters,  was  the 
necessary  consequence  of  such  episcopal  aggrandize- 
ment ;  yet  were  they,  in  no  instance,  merely  ac- 
counted laymen.  Amongst  the  numerous  martyrdoms 
recorded  in  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Eusebius, 
not  a  single  person  is  mentioned,  who  sustained 
the  office  of  lay  presbyter.    We  have  seen  in  the 

Lib.  x,  c.  5.  s        s  * 


94  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

works  of  Cyprian,  the  commencement  of  episcopal  in- 
fluence and  rivalship  ;  this  appears  to  have  advanced 
until,  by  the  righteous  judgments  of  God,  the  Diocle- 
sian  persecution  fell  upon  the  Christian  church.0  But 
in  the  glowing  description  of  this  visitation,  given  by 
Eusebius,  it  was  by  no  means  his  design  to  inveigh 
against  the  hierarchy ;  rather  artfully  he  points  the 
judgments  of  heaven  against  those  who  should  resist 
usurpation.  So  remote  were  his  desires  from  lessen- 
ing his  own  office,  that  he  approved  the  sentiment, 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  communicated  by  the  hands 
of  the  bishop,p  than  which,  no  doctrine  could  have 
been  more  conducive  to  that  sacred  veneration  which 
has  been  the  basis  of  ecclesiastical  domination  with 
the  credulous.  This  error,  coming  in  aid  of  a  propo- 
sition generally  adopted,  that  there  must  be  but  one 
Christian  society  in  each  city,  would  require  only  a 
large  accession  of  converts,  to  insure  the  erection  of 
diocesan  episcopacy  in  any  place.  Dionysius,  bishop 
of  Alexandria,  prior  to  A.  D.  270,  says  in  Eusebius, 
that  there  were  in  the  remote  suburbs,  places  denomi- 
nated synagogues,  in  which  a  portion  of  the  congre- 
gation assembled  for  worships  Athanasius,  who 
was  bishop  of  Alexandria  in  the  life  of  Eusebius,  shows 
that  in  his  time  there  were  different  Christian  assem- 
blies there,  and  that  they  were  all  collected  in  one, 
only  in  Easter.  But  although,  from  the  co-operation 
of  these  causes,  there  were  in  Rome,  one  bishop,  forty- 
four  presbyters,  seven  deacons,  and  as  many  sub-dea- 
cons, forty-two  acolyths,  and  fifty-two  exorcists  door- 
keepers, and  readers,  we  find  no  lay-presbyter.  Sub- 
deacons  there  were,  but  no  sub-presbyters.  The  cor- 
rect principle,  that  there  could  be  but  one  rtpoiata^ 
presiding  presbyter  in  a  church,  produced  parochial ; 
and  when  associated  with  the  unauthorized  rule,  that 

°  Lib.  viii.  c.  1. 

P  Lib.   vi.    c.   43.      Toule    cr<pgctyer9»vct.t  V7ro    tou   t7rt<Tx,o7rov — juti 
lu%a>V)  Tai;  clvIov  ttytov  ttviv/aclIoc  ilv%t. 

q  —iv  7rfioa.</]ilQi{    TrQCifltgce   Kitptvots,    kclI*  fAigos—tTVYcLyotytLl.-— 

Lib.  vii.  c.  23. 


OF   CHRISTIAN   CHURCHES.  95 

one  church  only  could  exist  in  one  city,  produced  also 
diocesan  episcopacy.  But  how  lay  presbyters  came 
in,  it  will  be  soon  enough  to  inquire,  when  they  have 
found  their  way  into  the  church.  Come  when  they 
may,  their  introduction  will  be  an  innovation,  equally 
unauthorized  by  the  word  of  God,  and  at  variance 
with  the  history  of  the  church,  during  the  three  cen- 
turies which  have  already  passed  under  our  inspec- 
tion. 

Eusebius  relates,  with  much  improbability,  that 
"  after  the  martyrdom  of  James,  and  the  immediately 
consequent  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  it  is  reported, 
that  the  apostles  and  disciples  of  the  Lord  who  were 
still  left  alive,  came  together  from  every  place,  with 
the  relations  of  the  Lord,  according  to  the  flesh,  of 
whom  many  then  survived.  That  they  all  held  a 
council,  and  with  one  consent  judged  Simeon,  the  son 
of  Cleopas,  of  whom  mention  is  made  in  the  gospel,  to 
be  worthy  of  the  throne,  egovov  aitov."r  The  apostolic 
commission  had  no  other  limits,  than  the  world  ;  and 
the  evangelists  were  also  general  officers,  ordained  to 
go  from  place  to  place,  and  country  to  country,  to 
erect  new  churches,  or  set  in  order  those  which  had 
been  planted. 

The  government  of  particular  societies  was  com- 
mitted to  presbyters,  who  were  generally  men  of  ordi- 
nary gifts  and  talents.  In  the  distribution  of  the  fields 
of  labor  among  the  apostles,  James  the  Just,  if  he  was 
an  apostle,  remained,  because  of  the  importance  of  the 
station  whence  the  gospel  had  proceeded,  and  where 
its  chief  proofs  still  existed,  among  the  Christians  at 
Jerusalem,  and  in  Judea,  by  a  common  consent.  But 
in  the  age  of  Eusebius,  the  presiding  presbyters,  hav- 
ing monopolized  the  name  bishop,  and  changed  its 
meaning  from  the  oversight  of  the  church,  to  that  of 
the  original  bishops  themselves,  claimed  to  be  sole 
successors  to  the  offices  and  honors  of  the  apostles  ;  or 
rather,  according  to  the  representation  of  Eusebius  in 

r  Lib.iii.  c.  11. 


96  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

the  case  of  James,  the  bishop's  throne  was  an  honor 
above  that  of  the  apostleship.  To  the  first  seat  in  the 
presbytery  of  the  respective  churches,  the  succession 
was  not  yet  reduced  to  uniformity :  in  some  it  was 
according  to  seniority  among  the  presbyters;  in 
others  the  successor  was  elected  by  and  out  of  the 
members  of  the  bench,  as  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt :  in 
others,  he  was  commissioned  over  their  heads,  with- 
out or  even  against  the  voice  of  the  majority  of  the 
presbyters ;  as  in  the  case  of  Cyprian  at  Carthage : 
and  sometimes  superstition,  as  in  the  choice  of  Fabi- 
anus,9  decided  the  question.  But  upon  the  death  of 
James,  the  choice  of  a  successor  is  reported  to  have 
been  deemed  sufficiently  important  to  authorize  a  call 
of  the  surviving  apostles  from  the  different  nations, 
wherever  dispersed.  Nevertheless  the  same  thing 
might  have  been  effected  as  well  by  an  evangelist,  or 
by  the  presbyters  of  that  particular  church,  no  imposi- 
tion of  hands  being  then  necessary  to  constitute  a 
7i£oe<flas,  presiding  presbyter.  That  the  blood  relatives 
of  the  Saviour  should  have  been  convened,  as  though 
by  their  relationship  they  had  authority  or  grace 
which  might  aid  the  consecration,  is  just  as  credible 
as  the  rest  of  the  story,  which  had  rested  upon  mere 
report,  if  it  had  any  existence  for  two  centuries,  and 
as  such  is  given  by  the  credulous  historian. 

The  circular,  by  which  the  synod  of  Antioch  pro- 
mulgated their  excommunication  of  Paul  of  Samosata, 
has  been  preserved  by  Eusebius.  After  specifying 
sixteen  by  name,  it  proceeds,  "  and  all  the  rest  present, 
who  live  in  the  adjacent  cities  and  countries,  the  bish- 
ops, and  presbyters,  and  deacons,  and  the  churches  of 
God  to  our  beloved  brethren  in  the  Lord  greeting."1 
An  evil  had  arisen  beyond  the  control  of  a  single 
church :  its  repression  was  important.  The  apostle 
and  evangelists  being  long  before  removed  by  death, 
and  the  presiding  presbyter  having  assumed  powers 

»  Lib .  vi.  c.  29. 

*  Lib.   vii.    c.   30. — ¥.7riffx.i7rsi   x.%1  7rgiT^,vligoi  kzi  Siakovci,  kai 

dl    tXKKiC-tX.1    TOW     tliCV)   &C. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  97 

beyond  the  restraint  of  his  co-presbyters,  a  necessity 
was  created  that  the  neighboring  Christians,  both 
clergy  and  people,  should  concur  in  correcting  the 
evil.  Had  lay-presbyters  existed,  they  must  have 
been  here  included.  If  supposed  either  in  the  word 
presbyters  or  churches,  the  hypothesis  must  extend  to 
every  church  ;  and  a  class  of  such  officers  existed  in 
every  Christian  assembly,  yet  never  discriminated  in 
any  enumeration,  or  by  any  occurrence,  or  circum- 
stance, recorded  by  any  writer,  orthodox  or  heretical, 
during  the  first  three  hundred  years  of  the  church. 
The  ruling  presbyter,  rfgoE<j7«$,u  we  have  had  in  full  de-r 
tail.  He  was  the  primus  presbyter  on  every  bench, 
equal  in  commission,  but  presiding  in  duty;  his  accu- 
mulated power  and  dignity,  before  the  clays  of  Euse- 
bius,  had  come  to  be  distinguished  by  the  name  bish- 
op. The  "  helps  and  governments'^'  have  been  erro- 
neously represented  as  "  those  who  rule  well,  but  do 
not  labor  in  word  and  doctrine."  If  these  mute  of- 
ficers had  been  found  in  every  church,  we  should  have 
heard  of  them.  The  man  who  can  suppose,  that  such 
an  office  could  have  existed  in  the  societies  in  the 
days  of  the  apostles,  and  no  trace  of  it  have  remained 
afterwards;  or  that  such  officers  could  have  been 
continued  in  the  churches,  but  have  escaped  so  much 
as  a  whisper  in  all  the  divisions  and  agitations,  in  all 
the  lists  of  martyrs  and  councils,  and  every  mention 
among  the  friends  and  enemies  of  the  church,  for  three 
hundred  years,  has  a  mind  capable  of  any  extrava- 
gance of  credulity.  He  can  adopt  an  erroneous  and 
imaginary  meaning  of  Scripture,  and  afterwards  ad- 
here to  it,  not  only  without,  but  in  opposition  to,  all 
evidence. 

A  charge,  severe  but  probable,  has  been  brought 
against  Eusebius,  of  suppressing  certain  passages,  par- 
ticularly 1  John  v.  7,  from  his  edition  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. He  was  commanded  by  Constantine  to  cause 

u  1  Tim.  v.  17.     Rom.  xii.  7,  8. 
w   1  Cor.  xii.  28. 

K 


98  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,  &C. 

fifty  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  legible  and  fit  for  use,  to 
be  written  on  prepared  parchment,  by  skilful  artists, 
and  to  send  them  to  Constantinople  by  two  public 
coaches,  under  the  care  of  some  deacon  of  his 
church.w  These  copies,  having  the  influence  of  Con- 
stantine,  must  have  been  received  by  the  churches,  for 
whom  they  were  provided  by  the  emperor,  with  vene- 
ration. That  in  these  copies  Eusebius  suppressed  cer- 
tain passages  tending  to  establish  the  consubstantiali- 
ty  of  the  Father  and  the  Son,  particularly  1  John  v. 
7,  has  been  lately  alleged,  and  top  well  supported.  He 
excepted  against  the  doctrine  of  those  texts,  in  the 
council  of  Nice,  but  escaped  censure  by  covering  his 
regard  for  Arianism  under  the  pretence  of  a  fear  of 
the  heresy  of  Sabellius.  In  a  letter  to  his  charge,  he 
defends  his  inconsistency,  by  softening  the  language  of 
the  creed  he  had  reluctantly  signed.  The  disposition 
of  the  man,  his  opposition  to  the  doctrines,  the  empe- 
ror's coincidence  with  him  in  sentiments,  the  opportu- 
nity afforded  him  by  Constantine,  the  complexion  of 
the  Greek  copies  generally,  over  which  his  edition 
must  have  had  a  decisive  influence ;  and,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  support  which  the  text  receives  from  Latin 
copies  and  writers,  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  Facundus, 
Vigilius,  and  others,  all  conspire  with  the  certainty  of 
his  having  omitted  a  portion  of  Mark's  gospel,  to  at- 
tach the  blame  of  the  defective  copies  to  his  disingen- 
uousness. 

J  De  vit,  Constant.  Lib.  iv.  c.  36. 


SECTION   XL 

The  conned  at  Jerusalem  was  extraordinary. — Councds  may  be  traced  to  the 
commencement  of  the  third  century. — They  were  at  first  advisory,  not  appel- 
lative, much  less  legislative. — They  strengthened  clerical  power- — The  coun- 
cil of  Carthage,  A.  D.  258.— The  two  councils  of  Antioch,  A.  D.  264,  270. 
The  council  of  Eliberis,  A.  D.  305.— The  council  of  Aries,  A.  D.  309.— 
The  synod  of  Ancyra,  A.  D.  314. — The  synod  of  Pontus,  A.  D.  314.' — 
The  general  council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  325. — The  general  councd  of  Constan- 
tinople, A.  D.  331. — The  general  council  of  Ephesus,  A.  D-  431. — The 
general  council  at  Chalcedon,  A.  D.  451. — The  second  general  council  at 
Constantinople,  A.  D.  553. — The  third  general  council  at  Constanti- 
nople, A.  D.  680.—  Another,  A.  D.  692.— The  seventh  (Ecumeni- 
cal council  was  at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  754. — Another  seventh  at  Nice, 
A.  D-  787. — This  was  after  the  commencement  of  the  empire  of  Charle- 
magne, the  erection  of  a  monarchy  in  England,  and  the  civil  power  of  the 
pope. — None  of  these  councils  were  founded  upon  the  consent  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  or  upon  any  spiritual  authority ;  often  established  error,  and 
create  no  obligation  upon  the  Christian  world. 

The  records  of  the  early  synods  and  councils  of  the 
Christian  church,  so  far  as  genuine,  are  credible  evi- 
dence of  facts,  and  competent,  to  some  extent,  to  show 
the  condition  of  the*  church  at  different  periods.  Ec- 
clesiastical associations  have  never  possessed  the 
rightful  power  of  legislation  in  the  church  of  Christ ; 
but  as  every  man  is  bound  to  believe  for  himself,  so 
every  Christian  denomination  has  a  right  to  adopt 
their  own  form  of  church  government,  and  every 
member  equal  liberty  to  dissent  and  withdraw.  The 
voluntary  conventions  of  synods  and  councils  are 
justifiable,  at  least  when  merely  deliberative.  The 
conduct  of  Paul  and  Barnabas,  in  waving  the  rite  of 
circumcision  with  respect  to  Gentile  converts,  having 
been  censured  at  Antioch,  by  persons  who  had  come 
from  Jerusalem,  was  submitted  unto,  and  confirmed 
by  the  opinions  of  Peter,  James,  and  perhaps  John,  and 


100  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

the  presbyters  and  church  at  Jerusalem.  But  the 
question  was  proposed  in  the  abstract  form,  and  the 
advice  was  founded  upon  the  antecedent  decisive  tes- 
timony of  the  Holy  Spirit.  This  appeal  ought,  there- 
fore, to  have  remained,  after  inspiration  ceased,  an 
isolated  case,  nor  was  it  followed  for  a  long  series  of 
years. 

We  learn  from  Tertullian,  in  the  third  century,  that 
"  councils  were  collected  in  certain  places  throughout 
the  Greek  cities,  from  all  the  churches,  by  which  the 
higher  matters  were  managed  in  common,  and  the 
representation  itself  of  the  whole  Christian  persuasion, 
was  regarded  with  high  respect. "a  Because,  when 
synods  were  introduced,  the  churches  were  represent- 
ed by  delegates,  and  this  was  among  the  Greeks  only, 
it  has  been  conjectured  that  they  took  the  idea  from 
their  own  civil  forms.  The  practice  was  certainly 
founded  on  common  consent,  since  they  were  neither 
at  first  of  appellative  jurisdiction,  nor  founded  on 
Scriptural  authority.  The  numerous  Greeks  then  in 
lesser  Asia,  were  probably  included  in  the  term  "per 
Grcecias."  Consultations  concerning  Easter  were 
held  in  Palestine,  Pontus,  Rome,  and  France,  in  the 
days  of  Polycrates  and  Victor,  about  the  commence- 
ment of  the  third  century .b  Cyprian  did  not  neglect 
to  avail  himself  of  means,  so  well  adapted  to  enhance 
clerical  influence  and  power,  to  which  he  was  so 
much  inclined.  In  Africa,  therefore,  they  soon  be- 
came frequent ;  and  their  members  gradually  losing 
sight  of  the  representation  of  their  churches,  consider- 
ed themselves  as  acting  by  virtue  of  their  offices. 
And  as   the  presiding  presbyters  had  become  bish- 

a  Tertul.  adversus  Psychicos.  c.  13.  Whether  he  speaks  only 
of  the  Montanists,  or  of  those  consultations  of  the  orthodox  in  Asia 
Minor,  against  Montanus,  cited  by  Eusebius,  from  Apollinarius, 
Lib.  v.  c.  15,  let  the  reader  decide.  "  Aguntur  przeterea  per  Grs- 
cias,  ilia  certis  in  locis  concilia  ex  universis  ecclesiis,  per  quse  et 
altioria  quseque  in  commune  tractantur  et  ipsa  representatio  totius 
nominis  Christiani  magna  veneratione  celebratur." 
1>   Vide  Euseb.  Eccl.  Hist.  Lib.  v.  c.  23,  24,  25. 


OP    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  101 

ops  of  the  bishops,  who  constituted  the  presby- 
teries of  the  respective  congregations,  so  the  me- 
tropolitans soon  presided  in  the  provincial  synods, 
and  afterwards  patriarchs  in  general  councils.  That 
of  Carthage  in  the  reign  of  Decius  was  conven- 
ed by  Cyprian,  A.  D.  258,  to  consult  of  the  pro- 
priety of  re-baptizing  those  who  had  been  baptiz- 
ed by  heretics.  There  were  eighty-four  members, 
who  all  gave  their  own,  and  sometimes  also  the  votes 
of  others,  as  proxies,  and  the  details  evince,  that  they 
were  considered  the  representatives  of  particular 
churches  there  named.  Cyprian,  when  opening  the 
business,  described  the  assembly  as  deliberative  only, 
and  not  as  designed  to  pass  a  censure  upon  any  indi- 
vidual. The  fifth  speaker  observed,  that  all  who  came 
to  his  church  from  heretics  he  baptized,  "  and  those 
from  their  clergy  he  placed  among  the  laity."c  It  has 
appeared  from  the  works  of  Cyprian,  that  episcopacy 
was  then  parochial;  consequently  the  presbyters  of  a 
single  church  must  have  been  the  clergy  here  named. 
No  other  reference  to  presbyters  is  found  in  the  record 
of  this  council.  The  councils  held  at  Antioch,  A.  D. 
264  and  270,  against  Paul  of  Samosata,  excited  great 
interest  among  Christians.  They  were  not  obstructed 
by  the  civil  power  :  on  the  contrary,  application  was 
made  to  the  emperor  Aurelian,  though  a  Pagan,  to 
effectuate  their  final  decision  by  ejecting  Paul  from 
the  church.  This  appeal  of  a  Christian  synod  to  the 
civil  authority,  was  unscriptural,  unprecedented,  and 
of  mischievous  tendency. 

The  council  of  Eliberis  in  Spain,  about  A.  D.  305, 
and  that  of  Aries  in  France,  A.  D.  309,  both  recognize 
the  subordination  of  deacons  to  presbyters,  and  of 
each  to  their  bishop,  who  was  evidently  parochial. 

The  synod  of  Ancyra,  in  Galatia,  met  A.  D.  314,  to 
establish  rules  of  discipline  concerning  the  reception 
of  those  who,  in  time  of  persecution,  had  abandoned 
the  cause.    The  first  canon  re-admitted  such  presby- 

*   Kit/  lev;  clvo  KKxgcv  nvlmy   \a.ix.ov;  i<rl»o-a. -Zonaras,  p.   276. 

£2 


102  THE     PRIMITIVE     GOVERNMENT 

ters  unto  the  honor  of  their  bench,  7^$  *ijt  xala  xaOe^av 
fis7ex^"f  but  denies  them  the  privilege  of  serving.  By 
the  second,  deacons  so  offending  are  in  like  manner  to 
be  received  to  the  other  honor,  but  not  again  to  ad- 
minister the  bread  or  the  cup,  or  to  preach,  a{lov  r; 
ftolrj^ov,  ava  q>s%nv,  tj  x^voasiv.  If  the  deacons  in  the 
churches  of  Asia  Minor  served  the  sacramental  tables, 
preached  and  held  the  other  honor,  Irjv  oxk^v  Ttfirjv  e%siv, 
certainly  the  presbyters  were  not  laymen  ;  nor  do 
such  appear  in  the  other  canons  of  this  synod.  By 
the  thirteenth  canon,  it  is  made  unlawful  for  coun- 
try bishops  (chorepiscopi,  sTtiaxortot,  xala,  %a>e,as)  to  or- 
dain presbyters  and  deacons,  and  also  city  presbyters 
without  the  consent  of  the  bishop  in  the  other  parish. d 
The  chorepiscopi  presided  over  congregations  in  vil- 
lages, and  the  design  of  this  canon  was  to  monopolize 
power  and  influence  in  city  bishops,  by  prohibiting  or- 
dinations by  the  chorepiscopi.  If  they  were  bishops  by 
a  secondary  or  canonical  ordination,  this  canon  was 
in  furtherance  of  the  same  design,  the  accumulation  of 
power,  and  of  no  higher  authority,  that  Is,  merely 
void.  If  they  had  been  ordained  as  presbyters  only, 
this  canon  is  a  recognition  of  their  right  to  ordain 
presbyters  and  deacons,  at  the  period  of  this  synod. 

The  synod  of  Neoca3sarea  in  Pontus,was  A.  D.  314, 
and  also  prior  to  the  council  of  Nice.  By  the  first 
canon,  presbyters  are  forbidden  to  marry  upon  pain 
of  deposition,  which  is  conclusive  proof  that  they  were 
not  laymen.  By  the  eleventh  canon  it  is  decreed,  that 
no  presbyter  shall  be  ordained  under  thirty  years ; 
and  the  reason  assigned  is,  that  Christ  was  baptized 
and  began  to  teach  in  his  thirtieth  year.  The  thir- 
teenth prohibits  country  presbyters  from  offering  in 
the  presence  of  the  bishop  and  presbyters  of  a  city, 
but  if  they  be  absent,  (i-av  8s  arti^ot)  and  he  alone  should 
be  called  to  prayer,  he  may  administer  the  bread  and 

srxxa.   fAiiSi   TT^itfivligrus    (Mloiidell   supposed  7rgt<r&u]i£oic)   TroXtac 
i«goix.in. — Zonaras,  p.  295. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  103 

cup;  by  which  it  is  evident  that  the  country  presby- 
ters were,  when  alone,  to  break  the  bread,  and  to  bless 
the  cup.  The  fourteenth  canon  declares  the  chorepis- 
copi  to  be,  xala  IvHov,  after  the  example  of  the  seventy 
disciples,  and  consequently  that  they  were  not  succes- 
sors to  the  twelve  apostles.  The  fifteenth  declares, 
that  there  ought  to  be  no  more  than  seven  deacons, 
even  in  a  great  city.  In  the  councils  prior  to  those 
denominated  oecumenical,  no  mention  has  been  made 
of  any  elders,  but  those  who  preached  and  adminis- 
tered ordinances  ;  the  fathers  and  the  synods  thus 
agreeing,  all  probability  of  their  existence  hitherto  is 
thus  evidently  excluded. 

There  were  no  general  councils  until  the  emperors 
became  Christians.  Constantine  set  the  example,  and 
without  invading  the  peculiar  province  of  an  ecclesi- 
astic, presided  in  the  council  of  Nice,  and  probably 
prevented  much  discord.  In  the  character  of  a  civil 
governor,  it  belonged  to  him  to  preserve  the  peace  of 
his  subjects.  To  call  the  council,  he  had  no  ecclesi- 
astical authority.  The  fact,  that  the  kings  of  Israel 
gathered  the  people  on  several  occasions,  was  no  jus- 
tification. They  governed  under  a  theocracy,  and 
were  to  execute,  not  to  make  laws  :  they  were  also 
commissioned,  being  the  anointed  of  the  Lord.  When 
Christianity  arose,  though  in,  it  was  not  of,  the  world, 
and  was  established  upon  principles  wholly  distinct 
from  those  of  civil  government.  Its  subjects  were  en- 
joined submission  to  the  laws  of  the  country  wherever 
they  might  be,  if  not  inconsistent  with  the  divine  law. 
Valentinian  refused  to  call  a  general  council,  and  as- 
signed as  a  reason,  at  least  ostensive,  that  being  a  lay- 
man, he  had  no  right.  The  councils  of  Carthage, 
Antioch,  Ancyra,  and  Neocaesarea  in  Pontus,  were 
prior  to  any  of  those  termed  oecumenical.  That  at 
Nice,  A.  D.  325,  was  the  first  so  denominated.6  The 
professed  object  was  the  defence  of  the  divinity  of  the 

e  OiKiu/uiv»  signified  the  habitable  world,  but  was  used  for  the 
extent  of  the  Roman  empire  ;  from  hence,  oix.ovf.avos,  oecumenical, 
when  applied  to  a  council,  imported,  that  it  was  convened  from  the 


104  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

Son  of  God,  against  the  heresy  of  Arius,  a  presbyter 
of  Alexandria,  whose  chief  opponent  was  Athanasius, 
a  deacon  of  the  same  church.  The  second  canon  re- 
cites, that  some  who  had  been  Gentiles,  as  soon  as 
baptized,  pass  into  the  office  of  bishop  or  presbyter, 

xat  a/ta    -tcp  /3<wt7 isOtjvai,  Ttgooayecv  stj   Jrttjxorf^j',  q  ttj  rtgssfiv 

Is^iov,  which  is  forbidden,  until  they  shall  have  given 
proof  of  their  change.  This  accords  with  the  antece- 
dent practice  of  the  churches,  in  showing,  that  at  the 
period  of  this  council,  the  ordination  of  a  bishop  was 
sometimes  still  the  first,  and  only  ordination  of  him 
who  received  the  office.  The  fourth  canon  gives  the 
right  of  election  and  ordination  of  a  bishop,  to  all  those 
of  the  same  province ;  but  subject  to  the  authority  of 
the  Metropolitan.  As  the  bishops  in  the  provinces 
were  parochial,  or  merely  pastors,  and  without  any 
previous  ordination  as  presbyters,  the  office  having 
been  the  same,  these  ordinations,  though  denom- 
inated episcopal,  were  therefore  still,  in  fact,  by 
presbyters,  and  consequently  equally  without  Scrip- 
tural authority,  and  episcopal  succession,  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  terms ;  and  although  by  the 
presiding  presbyters,  H^osaJcolii,  who  had  long  before 
monopolized  the  name  bishop,  their  office  was  no 
more  than  that  of  presbyters.  The  fifth  directs  two 
synodical  meetings  of  all  the  bishops  in  a  province, 
annually,  to  judge  in  cases  heretofore  within  the  cog- 
nizance of  the  presbytery  of  each  church.  This  re- 
moved the  responsibility  of  presiding  presbyters  or 
bishops  from  their  own  co-presbyters,  who  were  not 
to  sit  in  the  new  provincial  synods.  This  innovation 
was  the  more  strange,  because  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons constituted  some  of  the  most  active  members  of 
this  council  of  Nice.  The  sixth  canon  makes  the  con- 
sent of  the  bishops  of  Alexandria  necessary  to  the 
election  of  all  bishops  in  Egypt,  Lybia,  and  Pentapolis 
in  Africa ;  and  also  of  the  bishops  of  Rome,  of  An- 

civilized  world.  But  the  gospel  had  extended  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  empire,  and  the  whole  church  never  acted  in  any  one  council. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  105 

tioch,  and  of  other  provinces,  as  far  as  had  been  usual. 
The  seventh  canon  secures  the  same  undefined  pre- 
rogative to  the  bishop  of  iElia  Capitolina.  With  this 
council  commenced  the  combination  of  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical authority ;  force  being  substituted  for  the 
conviction  of  truth. 

The  second  was  at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  381,  in 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  for  the  correction 
of  the  errors  of  Macedonius,  who  denied  the  divinity 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  second  canon  confines  bish- 
ops to  their  own  dioceses,  and  declares  that  the  eccle- 
siastical government  of  each  province  shall  be  admin- 
istered by  its  own  synod. 

The  third  was  convened  at  Ephesus,  A.  D.  431,  by 
Theodosius  the  Younger,  emperor  of  the  East,  and 
condemned  the  heresy  of  Nestorius,  who  accounted 
the  Son  of  God  and  Christ  two  persons,  and  denied  that 
the  Virgin  was  the  mother  of  God.  In  the  canons  of  this 
council,  the  terms  "  bishops,  clergy,  and  laity,"  often 
occur,  the  word  clergy  including  unquestionably  the 
presbyters  and  deacons.  Charisius  alone  is  named  in 
these  a  presbyter ;  he  was  a  heretic,  whose  writings 
were  condemned  by  the  synod. 

The  fourth  met  at  Chalcedon,  under  the  emperor 
Marcianus,  A.  D.  451,  and  anathematized  Eutyches 
and  Dioscorus,  who  held  that  Christ  was  to  be  wor- 
shiped as  God  and  as-  man  ;  and  in  both  natures  as 
one  nature.  This  council  recognized  the  repeal  of  the 
second  council  of  Ephesus  by  the  bishop  of  Rome, 
which  had  established  the  Eutychian  error.  The 
second  canon  expressly  describes  bishops,  chorepis- 
copi,  presbyters  and  deacons  as  clergy. 

The  fifth  was  held  at  Constantinople,  in  the  reign  of 
Justinian  the  First,  A.  D.  553.  Its  efforts  were  directed 
against  the  Nestorian  errors  which  had  been  taught  by 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  and  Diodorus  of  Tarsus  ;  the 
opinion  that  the  soul  exists  before  the  body,  and  some 
ancient  doctrines  of  Origen  and  others. 

The  sixth  convened  at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  680, 
under  Constantine  the  Fourth,  called  Pogonatus,  the 


106  PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

father  of  Justinian,  against  the  Monothelites.  This 
council  held,  that  Christ  had  one  person,  but  two  na- 
tures, neither  of  which  was  destitute  of  its  own  will 
and  works. 

Another  council,  holden  in  692,  in  the  tower  of  the 
palace,  by  Justinian  the  Second,  is  also  called  the  sixth, 
because  the  former,  like  the  fifth,  enacted  no  canons. 
Of  this  there  remain  an  hundred  and  two.  The  can- 
ons of  this  council  abound  with  proofs  that  presbyters 
were  of  the  clergy ;  the  reader  will  find  these  in  can- 
ons 3,  6,  13,  14,  32,  58,  and  others. 

The  seventh  oecumenical  council  was  held  at 
Constantinople,  in  the  year  754,  under  the  reign 
of  Constantine,  called  Copronymus,  the  father  of 
Leo  the  Fourth,  and  condemned  the  use  of  images 
in  worship.  This  council  is  denominated  oecu- 
menical by  the  Greek  church,  but  is  rejected  by 
the  Latin.  Upon  the  death  of  the  emperor  Leo,  his 
son  Constantine  being  a  youth,  his  mother  Irene  who 
reigned  in  his  behalf,  held  a  council,  also  accounted 
the  seventh,  at  Nice,  A.  D.  787,  in  defence  of  the  wor- 
ship of  images,  against  the  iconoclasts.  The  records 
of  these  furious  zealots  are  preserved  with  great  par- 
ticularity, together  with  their  unanimous  anathema  of 
all  those  who  will  not  kiss  the  images.f 

At  the  period  of  the  council  last  mentioned,  Charles 
the  Great  possessed  Burgundy,  France,  Germany, 
and  Italy,  and  was  about  to  re-establish  the  empire  of 
the  West,  which  had  been  overrun  and  divided  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  A  little  before  the  time 
of  this  council  also,  the  pope  had  received  the  civil 
exarchate  of  Ravenna,  the  commencement  of  his  tem- 
poral power;  and  a  general  monarchy  had  been 
erected  in  England. 

These  councils,  in  no  instance,  were  founded  on  the 
consent  of  the  wrhole  church.  Even  had  they  been, 
they  could  thereby  have  derived  no  power  to  legislate 
for  Christ,  to  erect  or  legitimate  the  hierarchy,  which 

f  E/xovxc  ua-TTci^ifAebx,  y.n  gutocs  i^cvtxs  avafiejU*  nrlceernv. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  107 

was  the  principal  object  of  their  care.  The  pretence 
that  they  were  under  spiritual  guidance  is  absurd,  for 
council  decided  against  council,  and  often  against  the 
word  of  God.  Their  decisions  were  by  majorities, 
who  repeatedly  silenced  the  truth  merely  by  numbers, 
and  generally  persecuted  those  who  were  in  the  mi- 
nority. Augustine  gave  it  as  his  opinion,  that  the 
truth  was  to  be  investigated  without  regard  to  the 
decrees  of  councils  ;  and  Gregory  Nazianzan  declared 
that  he  never  had  observed  good  to  result  from  any 
council.  What  he  had  not,  others  may  have  seen. 
Councils  composed  of  holy  men,  with  a  view  delibe- 
rately to  investigate  the  meaning  of  revelation,  and 
to  advise,  have,  especially  in  times  of  great  declension, 
done  much  good.  Nevertheless  their  articles,  creeds, 
and  confessions,  however  excellent,  are  uncommanded, 
merely  human,  and  destitute  of  authority. 


SECTION    XII. 

The  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice  established  diocesan  episcopacy,  for  which 
various  causes  had  paved  the  way- —  Yet  parochial  episcopacy  was  not  wholly 
banished  in  the  fourth  century. — Hilary  of  Poictiers  ;  his  writings- — Hilary, 
a  deacon  of  Rome  ;  his  commentary  among  the  works  of  Ambrose,  and  his 
questions  in  the  ilk  tome  of  Augustine. — He  says,  Presbyters  were  at  first 
called  Bishops,  and  still  performed  the  same  duties  in  their  absence. — And 
proves,  m  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  that  the  ordination  and  office  of 
a  Bishop  and  Presbyter  were  the  same. — He  agrees  with  antecedent  proofs 
that  the  priority  of  the  Bishop  or  first  Presbyter,  was  merely  adventitious, 
and  no  diversity  in  office  until  made  so  by  canons. 

The  removal  of  parochial  authority  by  the  intro- 
duction of  councils,  paved  the  way  for,  and  became 
the  engine  of,  the  establishment  of  diocesan  episcopa- 
cy. Power  being  aggregated  from  the  individual 
churches  into  synods  and  councils,  there  remained  to 
be  effected  for  the  hierarchy,  the  exclusion  of  presby- 
ters from  synods  and  councils,  and  the  appointment  of 
bishops  by  bishops,  both  of  which  were  secured  by  the 
canons  of  the  council  of  Nice.  But  although  a  supe- 
rior order  was  by  these  means  prepared  for  diocesan 
government,  it  did  not  universally  supersede  parochial, 
during  the  fourth  century. 

The  gradual  advances  towards  episcopal  domina- 
tion and  patriarchal  pre-eminence,  by  the  monopoly 
of  the  name  bishop,  by  the  necessity  of  his  concur- 
rence, by  the  computation  of  successions,  by  the 
claims  of  ecclesiastical  legislation  and  appellatory  ju- 
risdiction, by  the  exclusive  but  unsupported  claim  of 
episcopal  ordination,  by  the  exclusion  of  presbyters 
from  councils,  all  of  which  have  passed  successively 
under  our  view  ;  and,  also,  by  the  erection  of  diocesan 
instead  of  parochial  government,  which,  in  the  middle 
of  the  fourth  century,  our  present  place,  is  still  incom- 


THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,    &C  109 

plete,  are  obvious  to  every  unprejudiced  reader  of  the 
fathers.  Nevertheless,  presbyters  have  not  been  de- 
graded from  their  principal  employments,  the  preach- 
ing of  the  gospel  and  the  administration  of  the  bap- 
tismal and  eucharistical  ordinances,  even  among  Epis- 
copalians. To  rescue  Presbyterians  from  such  an 
imputation,  to  which  some  are  willing  to  succumb,  is 
the  object  of  these  efforts.  At  a  late  period,  upon 
which  the  finger  shall  be  placed,  as  soon  as  it  arrives, 
ruling  elders,  so  denominated  from  a  mistaken  sense  of 
the  words  7tposstat  s  j  7tpeal5vttpot,  presiding  presbyters,  were 
most  unwarrantably  intruded  into  the  original  stand- 
ing of  deacons,  who  were  thereby  driven  from  their 
office.  This  was  not  a  degradation  of  presbyters,  but 
an  encroachment  of  mere  laymen,  and  equally  repre- 
hensible, who  have  no  title  to  the  name  presbyter,  nor 
to  the  employment  assigned  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to 
deacons.  On  a  full  understanding  of  this  faulty  cleri- 
cal contrivance,  a  great  portion  of  the  American  pas- 
tors ordain  and  consider  only  as  deacons,  those  who 
are  denominated  ruling  elders ;  and  they  are  autho- 
rized to  do  so  by  their  form  of  government. 

The  author  who  next  succeeds  is  Hilary  of  Poic- 
tiers,  who  was  born  in  Gaul  near  the  end  of  the  third 
century,  and  educated  a  heathen,  but  afterwards  con- 
vinced, instructed,  and  baptized.  When  bishop  of 
Pictavium,  he  wrote  Tractates  on  the  Psalms,  and  a 
commentary  on  the  gospel  of  Matthew. 

On  Psalm  cxxxiv.  27,a  he  observes,  that  the  Psalm- 
ist means  different  things  by  the  house  of  Jsrael,  Aa- 
ron, Levi,  and  those  who  fear  the  Lord :  and  that,  in 
like  manner,  Paul  writing  to  the  Corinthians  distin- 
guishes between  the  called,  the  saints,  and  those  who 
call  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  By  Aa- 
ron, he  understands  the  priests — "  in  Aaron,  sacerdotes 
signijicari ;"  for  he  was  first  of  the  order  under  the 
law :  by  Levi,  the  deacons — "  in  Levi  autem  ministros 
ostendi ;"  for  this  tribe  was  chosen  to  attend.     But  the 

a  Hilar.  Pict.  Opera,  vol,  i.  p.  413. 

Li 


110  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

rest  of  the  people,  to  whom  the  duty  neither  of  the 
priesthood,  nor  attendance,  but  of  fear,  "cui  non 
sacerdotii, neque ministerii  sed  timoris  officium" belonged, 
are  designated  by  those  "  who  fear  the  Lord."  Hilary, 
who  was  himself  a  bishop,  and  knew  the  novel  claims 
of  such  to  a  superiority  over  their  presbyters,  does 
very  plainly  in  this  passage,  pass  over  the  distinction, 
and  account  them  as  the  same  order  of  "  sacerdotes," 
priests,  recognizing  only  two  kinds  of  officers,  sacer- 
dotes and  ministri,  presbyters  and  deacons.  He  conse- 
quently thereby  excludes  lay  presbyters.  The  sacer- 
dotal order  of  the  Old  Testament  vanished  with  that 
shadowy  dispensation,  and  no  other  priest  exists  but 
Jesus  Christ,  who  has  passed  into  the  heavens. 

Hilary  wrote  also  twelve  books  against  the  Arians, 
and  was  banished  to  Phrygia  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stantius,  because  he  defended  Athanasius.  In  Asia  he 
wrote  his  Treatise  of  Synods,  about  A.  D.  359.  It  is 
directed  to  his  fellow  bishops,  coepiscopis,h  in  Germany, 
Belgium,  &c.  to  the  people,  " plebibus"  of  the  province 
of  Narbona ;  to  the  clergy,  " clericis"  of  Toulouse ; 
and  to  the  bishops,  "  Episcopis,"  of  the  provinces  of 
Britain.  Lay  elders  are  not  found  in  the  enumeration, 
nor  in  his  works,  this  imaginary  grade  not  having,  in 
the  age  of  Hilary,  found  an  entrance  into  the  church. 

Constantius  followed  his  father's  partialities  for  the 
Eusebian  faction,  and  was  more  decisive  in  his  pre- 
ferences. Hilary,  exasperated  by  persecution,  against 
which  his  writings  often  inveigh,  addressed  the  empe- 
ror in  several  books,  which  assume  the  style  and  form 
of  letters,  in  language  often  excessively  severe.  In 
the  second  he  observes  :  "  I  am  a  bishop  in  connexion 
with  the  Gallic  churches  and  bishops,  although  re- 
maining in  exile,  and  to  the  present  time  dispensing 
communion  to  the  church  by  my  presbyters."6    These 

b  Hil.  Pict.  vol.  ii.  p.  358. 

c  "  Episcopus  ego  sum  in  omnium  Gallicarum  ecclesiarum  atque 
episcoporum  communione,  licet  in  exilio  permanens,  et  ecclesise 
adhuc  per  presbyteros  meos  communionem  distribuens."  Page 
431. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  Ill 

appear  consequently  to  have  been  separate  churches, 
or  single  parishes,  and  his  charge  was  probably  of  the 
same  kind,  in  which  there  were  presbyters  who  sup- 
plied his  place.  These  must  have  administered  ordi- 
nances as  well  as  preached  the  gospel,  and  conse- 
quently were  not  laymen. 

He  was  sent  back  to  Gaul  in  360,  and  died  in  367. 

There  is  a  commentary  on  the  epistles  of  Paul 
found  at  present  among  the  works  of  Ambrose,  which 
Augustine  has  quoted  as  the  production  of  Hilary, 
who  could  have  been  no  other  than  he  who  was  a 
deacon  of  the  church  of  Rome  and  a  native  of  Sardi- 
nia. The  writer  of  this  commentary  must  also  have 
written  the  questions  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
attributed  to  him,  and  now  appearing  in  the  fourth 
tome  of  the  works  of  Augustine.  But  whether  he  was 
the  author  or  not,  the  works  place  themselves  at  300 
years  from  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  discover 
unusual  proofs  of  a  strong  and  well-instructed  mind, 
and  are  entitled  to  speak  for  themselves.  If  they  have 
partaken  in  the  advantages  of  the  canonizations  of 
Ambrose  and  Augustine,  the  honor  of  infallibility 
should  prevent  their  condemnation  with  Hilary  ;  who 
though  denominated  by  Jerome  a  Deucalion,  because 
a  rebaptizer,  did  hold  his  very  opinions  on  the  subject 
before  us.  It  is  too  late  to  subject  to  expurgation 
works  which  have  been  received  by  the  Christian 
world  from  the  reign  of  Valentinian  the  First.  Also, 
the  piety  and  sufferings  of  Hilary  for  the  cause  of 
Christ  are  abundantly  proved  by  Athanasius.d  On 
Ephesians,  iv.  11, 12,  among  other  things,  he  observes: 
"  For  also  Timothy,  who  had  been  created  by  him- 
self (Paul)  a  presbyter,  he  denominates  a  bishop,  be- 
cause presbyters  were  at  first  called  bishops,  seeing 
that  one  receding,  the  next  might  succeed  to  his 
place.    Finally,  in  Egypt,  presbyters  confirm,6  if  a 

d  Athanasii,  Oper.  vol.  i.  p.  647. 

e  Whether  the  term  consigrmnt  expressed  the  confirmation  of  the 
baptized,  or  the  imposition  of  hands  on  those  who  were  ordained, 
or  on  penitents,  it  was  correctly  accomplished  by  the  presbyter  in 


112  THE   PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

bishop  be  not  present.  But  because  the  presbyters 
who  came  afterwards,  began  to  be  found  unworthy 
to  hold  the  highest  office,  the  custom  was  changed,  a 
council  "providing  that  not  succession,  but  merit, 
should  create  a  bishop,  constituted  by  the  judgment  of 
many  presbyters,  lest  an  unworthy  person  should 
rashly  intrude,  and  become  an  offence  to  many."1" 
Hilary  thought  Timothy  to  have  been  by  his  ordina- 
tion a  presbyter,  and  also  by  the  same  ordination  a 
bishop,  because  presbyters  were  so  denominated  in 
the  days  of  the  apostle.  Moreover,  he  asserts,  that 
presbyters  presided  successively,  by  which  he  means 
that  they  came  to  be  primi,  or  bishops,  in  a  more 
modern  sense  of  the  word,  according  to  seniority  in 
ordination,  until  by  a  canon  of  council,  it  was  decreed, 
that  the  successor  should  be  appointed  according  to 
merit.  If  presbyters  were  at  the  first  bishops,  and 
were  the  highest  ordinary  officers  in  the  church,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  allege,  that  they  were  not  laymen. 
But  when  this  writer  comes  to  speak  of  Timothy's 
power  to  ordain  bishops,  he  expresses  his  views  more 
clearly.  On  1  Tim.  iii.  he  observes,  that  the  apostle, 
"  after  the  bishop,  subjoins  the  ordination  of  the  dea- 
con :  why  ?  unless  the  ordination  of  the  bishop  and  of 
the  presbyter  is  one,  for  each  of  them  is  a  priest.  But 
the  bishop  is  first,  seeing  every  bishop  is  a  presbyter, 
not  every  presbyter  a  bishop  ;  for  he  is  a  bishop,  who 
is  first  among  the  presbyters.  Finally,  he  represents 
Timothy  to  have  been  ordained  a  presbyter,  but  be- 

the  absence  of  the  bishop,  whose  preference  was  founded  only  on 
custom  and  canons;  but  these  could  not  have  legalized  such  act  of 
a  presbyter,  had  his  authority  not  been  apostolical. 

f  Ambros.  Oper.  torn.  iii.  p.  239.  ' '  Nam  et  Timotbeum  pres- 
byterum  a  se  creatum  episcopum  vocat,  quia  primum  presbyteri 
episcopi  appellabantur:  ut  recedente  uno,  sequens  ei  succederet. 
Denique  apud  iEgyptum  presbyteri  consignant,  si  prsesens  non 
sit  episcopus.  Sed  quia  coeperunt  sequentes  presbyteri  indigni 
inveniri  ad  primatus  tenendos;  immutata  est  ratio,  prospiciente 
Concilio,  ut  non  ordo  sed  meritum  crearet  episcopum,  multorum 
sacerdotum  judicio  constitutum,  ne  indignus  temere  usurparet,  et 
esse  multis  scandalum." 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  113 

cause  he  had  not  another  before  him,  he  was  a  bishop. 
Whence  also  he  shows,  that  he  may,  after  the  like 
manner,  ordain  a  bishop.  For  it  was  neither  right 
nor  lawful,  that  an  inferior  should  ordain  a  superior, 
for  no  one  confers  what  he  has  not  received."5  After 
a  few  sentences,  he  adds : — "  But  there  ought  to  be 
seven  deacons  and  some  presbyters,  that  there  may  be 
two  in  every  church,  and  one  bishop  in  a  city."h- 
Writing  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century,  this  last 
sentence  accords  with  the  circumstances  of  his  day, 
and  discovers  his  own  acquiescence  in  the  authority 
of  the  church.  Nevertheless,  he  shows  his  clear  dis- 
cernment of  ancient  facts,  when  he  affirms,  that  there 
was  but  one  ordination  for  the  bishop  and  the  presby- 
ter, and  their  office  the  same.  The  presiding  presby- 
ter we  have  seen,  came  afterwards  to  be  distinguished 
by  the  title  of  bishop,  a  name  common  at  first  to  all 
presbyters.  After  this,  it  was  correct  to  say,  every 
bishop  was  a  presbyter,  but  not  every  presbyter  a 
bishop,  because  the  presiding  presbyter  only,  in  every 
presbytery,  was  so  denominated.  Thus  he  accounts 
Timothy,  who  had  been  ordained,  as  he  thinks,  no 
more  than  a  presbyter,  to  have  been  a  bishop,  because 
there  was  no  presbyter  to  preside  over  him.  The 
word  primus,  where  it  first  occurs  in  this  quotation, 
has  been  supposed  to  agree  with  sacerdos  ;'x  but  that 
it  governs  presbyterorum  understood,  ana  takes  its  gen- 
der, is  evident  from  his  own  explanation  :  "  hie  enim 

z  Ambros.  Oper.  torn.  iii.  p.  272.  Post  episcopum  tamen  dia- 
coni  ordinationem  subjecit.  Quare?  nisi  quia  episcopi  et  presby- 
teri  una  ordinatio  est,  uterque  enim  sacerdos  est.  Sed  episcopus 
primus  est,  ut  omnis  episcopus  presbyter  sit,  non  omnis  presbyter 
episcopus.  Hie  enim  episcopus  est,  qui  inter  presbyteros  primus 
est.  Denique  Timotheum  presbyterurn  ordinatum  significat.  Sed 
quia  ante  se  alteram  nonhabebat,  episcopus  erat,  unde  et  quemad- 
modum  episcopum  ordinet  ostendit.  Neque  enim  fas  erat  aut  lice- 
bat,  ut  inferior  ordinaret  majorem.  Nemo  enim  tribuit  quod  non 
accepit. " 

•»  Ibidem. — ««Nunc  autem  septem  diaconos  esse  oportet,  et  ali- 
quantos  presbyteros,  ut  bini  sint  per  ecclesias,  et  unus  in  civitate 
episcopus." 

»  Skinner,  p.  219. 

L2 


1 14  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

episcopus  est,  qui  inter  presbyteros  primus  est."  Besides, 
also,  the  superiority  of  Timothy  is  not  ascribed  to  a 
higher  order  of  priesthood,  but  to  his  being  a  primus 
presbyter;  for  since  Timothy  was  directed  to  ordain 
bishops,  he  could  not  have  done  this,  if,  instead  of  be- 
ing in  equal  grade,  a  "  primus,"  he  had  been  an  "  infe- 
rior presbyter."  Here  mention  is  made  of  inferior  pres- 
byters, but  it  is  obviously  clear,  that  though  they 
had  been  at  the  period  of  this  author  canonically 
robbed  of  the  right  to  ordain,  they  were  not  laymen, 
but  interiors  only  in  relation  unto  the  primus,  or  pre- 
siding presbyter  of  their  bench. 

On  1  Tim.  v.  1,  he  observes,  that  "  an  aged  man  on 
account  of  the  respect  due  to  his  years,  must  be  ex- 
cited to  a  good  work  with  mildness,  that  he  may  re- 
ceive more  easily  the  admonition.  For  when  admon- 
ished, he  can  be  respected,  lest  he  may  afterwards  be 
reproved,  which  is  dishonorable  to  an  old  man.  For 
every  where,  among  all  nations,  old  age  is  honorable, 
Whence  also,  the  synagogue,  and  afterwards  the 
church,  have  had  seniors,  without  whose  counsel,  no- 
thing was  transacted  in  the  church.  Whichk  by  what 
neglect  it  should  have  grown  out  of  use,  I  know  not, 
unless  perhaps  by  the  negligence  of  the  teachers,  or 
rather  by  their  pride,  whilst  they  desire  to  appear 
alone  to  be  something.  Younger  men,  he  thinks, 
should  be  advised  with  the  affection  of  regard,  as  if 
brothers,  that  seeing  themselves  admonished  for  the 
sake  of  love,  they  may  more  easily  correct  themselves, 
forasmuch  as  they  may  discern,  that  his  own  conduct 
does  not  disagree  with  his  preaching.  But  old  women 
must  be  treated  as  mothers" — "  young  women  as  sis- 
ters."1 It  is  surprising,  that  any  mind  ever  nap- 
's "  Quod  has  been  rendered  '  which  order'  by  mistake.  In  his 
questions  on  Leviticus,  No.  25,  Hilary  has  censured  vocavit  senafiim, 
because  implying  ordincm  seniorem,  and  has  substituted  vocavit  sen~ 
tores  Israel,  to  exclude  the  idea  of  order  of  office.  Consequently, 
by  seniores  habuit  he  meant  merely  old  men. 

1  Ambros.  Oper.  torn.  hi.   p.  276.     "Propter  honorificientiam 
jetatis  majorem  natu  cum  mansuetudine  ad  bonum  opus  provocan- 


Or    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  115 

pened  to  conceive  this  passage  to  contain  the  idea  of 
lay  presbyters.  That  here  are  mentioned  old  men, 
who  were  lay  men,  is  very  certain  ;  it  likewise  appears, 
that  such  were  consulted  on  church  affairs  in  ancient 
times,  and  also  that  Jewish  synagogues  were  wont  to 
do  the  same  thing.  This  comment,  like  the  text  on 
which  it  was  made,  relates  only  to  old  men  who  are 
not  presbyters.  In  both,  they  were  contrasted  with 
young  men,  and  old  women  with  young  women. 
There  is  no  mention  made  of  office  or  order,  in  either. 
The  idea  of  an  order  of  presbyters  in  the  comment 
would  have  been  a  departure  from  the  text.  The  not 
taking  their  advice,  is  not  stated  to  have  been  a  viola- 
tion of  any  right,  except  of  the  respect  due  to  years,  a 
thing  merely  optional,  yet  improperly  omitted.  No 
inferior  presbyter  in  the  church,  has  been  once  men- 
tioned by  any  father  or  council  prior  to  this  writer. 
So  far  is  he  from  alleging  a  general  discontinuance  of 
such  a  class  of  officers,  that  he  never  has  hinted  at  the 
existence  of  such  an  officer,  and  for  the  best  of  reasons, 
because  no  such  order  was  ever  found  in  any  Chris- 
tian church  before  his  time.  Had  this  author  known 
of  two  offices  of  presbyters,  he  would  have  discovered 
that  knowledge,  when  arrived  at  the  seventeenth  verse 
of  this  chapter,  where  a  diversity  in  the  exercises  of 
the  presbyter's  duty  being  mentioned  by  the  apostle, 
it  has  become  in  modern  times,  the  foundation  of  an 
imaginary  distinction  into  ruling  elders,  and  those 
who  labor  in  word  and  doctrine.  Hilary  has  well  es- 
tablished the  identity  of  the  ordination  of  the  ruling 
presbyter  or  bishop,  and  of  the  other  presbyters  ;  but 

dum,  ut  facilius  suscipiat  admonitionem.  Potest  enim  vereri  com- 
monitus  ne  postea  corripiatur,  quod  turpe  est  seniori.  Nam  apud 
omnes  ubique  gentes,  honorabilisest  senectus.  Unde  et  synagoga 
et  postea  ecclesia  seniores  habuit,  quorum  sine  consilio  nihi  ageba- 
tur  in  ecclesia.  Quod  qua  negligentia  obsoluerit,  nescio,  nisi  forte 
doctorum  desidia,  aut  magis  superbia,  dum  soli  volunt,  aliquid  vi- 
deri.  Juniores  quasi  fratres  censet  admonendos,  cum  dilectionis 
affectu,  ut  videntes  amoris  causa  se  commoneri,  facilius  se  corrigant; 
quippe  cum  videant  non  discrepare  opera  ejus  a  prxdicatione. 
Anus  vcro  quasi  matres." — "  Adolescentulas  ut  sorores,"  &c. 


116  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

being  unable  to  divine  the  modern  construction,  by 
some  put  upon  this  verse,  he  says,  "  Good  and  faith- 
ful stewards  ought  not  only  to  be  judged  worthy  of 
honor  (reward)  on  high,  but  of  that  which  is  earthly, 
that  they  may  not  be  distressed  with  a  want  of  sup- 
plies, but  rather  rejoice  in  their  faith  and  doctrine. 
For  he  becomes  more  assiduous,  if  he  be  not  humbled 
by  want,  and  his  influence  increases,  when  he  per- 
ceives, that  he  obtains  the  present  fruit  of  his  labors ; 
not  that  he  may  abound,  but  that  he  may  not  suffer 
want.""1  Here  no  distinction  is  made  among  presby- 
ters, they  being  at  first  spoken  of  together  in  the  plu- 
ral. And  this  officer  is  then  named  in  the  singular, 
the  commentator  thereby  plainly  evincing  that  he  un- 
derstood the  verse  as  descriptive  of  one  office.  That 
three  centuries  should  have  elapsed  after  Paul  wrote 
this  word  Ttgosatales,  ruling,  and  this  sentence  have 
been  read  daily  in  the  original,  being,  in  the  age  of 
Hilary,  still  a  living  language,  spoken  in  the  fairest 
portion  of  the  churches ;  also,  that  no  intimation 
should  have  been  given,  in  this  or  any  other  writer, 
that  it  described  an  inferior  order  of  presbyters,  is  a 
posing  fact  to  the  advocates  of  lay  presbyters. 

Hilary,  the  deacon,  exposes  the  opinion  of  one  Fal- 
cidius,  that  Levites  zvere  equal  to  priests,  and  deacons  to 
presbijters,  announcing  it  as  boldness  and  presumption, 
because  Levites  were  bajulos,  porters,  and  deacons, 
ministros,  servants.     He  argues  :n   "  The  greater  order 


m  "Bonidispensatores  ac  fideles  non  solum  honore  sublimi  de- 
bent  digni  judicari,  sed  et  terreno,  ut  non  contristentur  indigentia 
sumptuum  sed  magisg-audeant  fide  sua  et  doctrina.  Instantior  enim 
fit,  si  nonhumilietur  inopia,  et  crescit  in  illo  authoritas,  cum  videt 
Be  etiam  in  prxsenti  laboris  sui  fructum  percipcre,  non  ut  abundet, 
sedutnon  deficiat."     Ambros.  Oper.  torn.  iii.  p.  277. 

n  Quest,  ci.  August,  torn.  iv.  p.  779.  "  Major  enim  ordo  intra 
se  et  apud  se  habet  e.t  minorem,  presbyter  enim  et  diaconi  agit 
officium  et  exorcists  et  lectoris.  Presby  terum  autem  intelligi  epis- 
copum,  probat  Paulus  apostolus,  quando  Timotheum  quern  ordi- 
navit  presbyterum,  instruit  qualem  debeat  creare  episcopum.  Quid 
est  enim  episcopus,  nisi  primus  presbyter,  hoc  est,  summus  sacer- 
dos?  Denique  non  aliter  quam  compresbyteros,  hie  vocat  et  consa- 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  117 

contains  in  it  the  less,  for  the  presbyter  acts  the  part 
of  deacon,  exorcist,  and  reader.  And  Paul  the  apos- 
tle proves,  that  a  presbyter  is  to  be  understood  a  bish- 
op, seeing  he  instructs  Timothy,  whom  he  ordained  a 
presbyter,  what  kind  of  man  he  ought  to  create  a 
bishop.  For  what  is  a  bishop,  unless  a  first  presby- 
ter, that  is,  a  chief  priest  1  Wherefore,  he  calls  them 
no  otherwise  than  his  co-presbyters  and  co-priests." — 
"  The  order  of  the  deacon  is  to  receive  from  the  priest 
and  give  to  the  people." 

This  passage  well  accords  with  the  evidence  of  fact, 
which  has  hitherto  appeared  in  detail;  that  the  priori- 
ty of  the  bishop  or  first  presbyter  was  merely  adven- 
titious, and  by  no  means,  however  supported  by  can- 
ons, a  diversity  in  order  of  office ;  there  being  origi- 
nally but  one  ordinary  preaching  order  in  the  church 
of  Christ,  which  was  that  of  presbyters;  and  that 
bishops,  after  every  effort  to  elevate  them  by  ecclesi- 
astical authority  and  preferences,  had  no  other  than 
presbyterial  ordination.  If  there  wrere  not  different 
kinds  of  presbyters,  it  results,  that  none  of  them  were 
laymen.  Also,  the  fact,  that  deacons  still,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourth  century,  received  the  bread  and  wine 
from  the  hands  of  the  presbyters,  and  conveyed  those 
elements  to  the  people,  clearly  evinces,  that  there  ex- 
isted at  that  period  no  such  intermediate  grade  of 
elders  in  the  churches. 

cerdotes  suos." — "  Diaconi  ergo  ordo  est,  accipere  a  sacerdote,  et 
sic  dare  plebi ." 


SECTION     XIII. 

Athanasius  was  a  deacon,  then  archdeacon,  and  then  a  bishop.  Tlie  powerful 
opponent  of  Arius.  Often  banished  and  still  preserved.  He  conformed  to 
the  canons  of  Nice,  which  gave  ordination  to  bishops.  In  Alexandria  there 
were  different  congregations  under  different  presbyters,  who  all  made  one 
presbytery  for  the  purpose  of  ordination,  and  had  one  5rpcs3-7a>?>  i7ritrx.07rat 
or  bishop.  Oplatus  lived  i?i  Numidia,  and  conformed  to  the  government  of 
his  day;  bishops,  presbyters  and  deacons,  his  seniors  were  not  officers — 
Aerius  accorded  in  views  of  government  with  Hilary  the  deacon,  and  lived 
in  Pontus. 

Athanasius  excelled  neither  in  style  nor  eloquence, 
yet  in  strength  of  understanding,  clearness  of  concep- 
tion, and  choice  of  expression,  on  abtruse  subjects,  he 
was  surpassed  by  none  of  that  age. 

That  this  champion  against  Arianism,  was  duly 
chosen  and  ordained  to  be  the  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
according  to  the  customs  of  that  church,  and  the  direc- 
tions of  the  council  of  Nice,  whereof  he  had  been  a 
very  active  member  but  five  months  before,  there  is  no 
reason  to  question.  That  he  had  attended  that  coun- 
cil as  a  deacon,  and  at  the  death  of  Alexander  was  an 
archdeacon,  are  clear.a  But  that  he  was  at  any  pe- 
riod a  presbyter,  except  as  that  office  identifies  itself 
with  that  of  bishop,  we  have  no  where  any  proof,  un- 
less a  general  expression  left  by  Gregory  Nazianzan 
b  can  be  received  as  such.  The  words  of  this  father, 
compared  with  the  views  of  that  age  exhibited  in  our 
last  section,  and  with  the  circumstances  recorded  of 
the  placing  Athanasius  in  the  chair,  probably  extended 

a  Athan.  Oper.  2d  vol.  547,  520,  521,  570. — it<f»  tuu  nw  ra>?  *g- 
%ifictx.cva>v  fZctQ/ucv,  &c. 

b  Greg1.   Nazianz.   Oper.   i.   vol.   376. — 7rst<r*.v  mr   van  fixSpatt 


THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,   &C.  X19 

only  to  the  office  of  deacon,  and  his  promotion  to  be 
the  head  of  his  order.  His  extermination  was  the  set- 
tled purpose  of  the  Arians,  but  Providence  always  de- 
feated these  schemes,  and  truth  prevailed  against  the 
imperial  authority  which  they  wielded.  His  ostracisms 
were  blessings  to  the  provinces;  for  in  every  place  to 
which  he  came,  he  was  a  learned  and  insuperable  ad- 
vocate of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Self-defence 
led  him  to  claim  and  exercise  powers,  justified  only  by 
the  exigencies  of  his  condition.  Thus  his  refusal,  upon 
his  second  restoration,  to  permit  a  single  church  of  the 
Arians  at  Alexandria,  being  suspended  upon  the  con- 
dition of  a  like  toleration  of  the  orthodox  party  in 
other  cities,  appears  to  have  been  founded  in  policy, 
rather  than  in  right.  His  popularity  at  home,  protec- 
tion abroad,  and  long  concealment  from  persecutors, 
prove  that  his  episcopal  administration,  however  un- 
scriptural,  had  not  been  tyrannical. 

There  occurs  a  passage  in  a  circular  written  by  the 
Synod  of  Alexandria,  and  preserved  in  his  second  apo- 
logy, wherein  they  defend  him   from  the  charge  of 
breaking  a  chalice  of  certain  schismatics,  by  denying 
that  there  was  any  church  at  the  place,  any  celebra- 
tion of  the  ordinance  at  the  time,  or  the  existence  of  a 
presbyter  there,  except  the  far-famed  Ischyras,  who 
was  never  chosen  by  a  church,  and  when  Alexander 
received  the  presbyters,  who  had  been  constituted  by 
Miletius,  he  was  not  numbered  with  them:  nor  had  he 
been  thus  set  apart  in  that  place.     When  therefore  was 
Ischyras  a  presbyter?     "By  whom  constituted?     Was 
he  by  Collythus,  since  this  remains?     But  because  Col- 
lythus  died  a  presbyter,  every  imposition  of  his  hand 
was  void,  and  all  those  who  were  constituted  by  him  in 
the  schism,  became  laymen,"  &c.c    This  argument  is 
founded  upon  the  supposition  that  Ischyras  was  not  a 
presbyter,  and  therefore  had  no  right  to  administer 

e  \  ol.  i.   570.     T/vo?   xotTctTTDs-dVTOf ;    a.fi.   kowovQou,  tovto  yag 

\QITTM,     O.KKU,     OTl    KOWOuBoC  GrfH^VTlpa;   ft)V   l\i\ivl»Ji,   KAl  WAV*.    £,!/§ 

avlou  ■ycyottv  ctjcupoc,  &c. 


120  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

the  ordinance;  and  that  he  was  not  a  presbyter,  be- 
cause Collythus  had  no  right  to  ordain  him  such,  "un- 
der a  pretence  that  he  was  a  bishop,  when  he  was 
not." <l  The  members  of  the  synod  to  which  the  church 
of  Alexandria  appertained,  were  neither  ignorant  of 
that  canon  which  confined  the  ordination  of  bishops  to 
bishops,6  nor  unacquainted  with  the  ancient  govern- 
ment of  the  church  of  Alexandria,  secured  to  it  by  the 
council  of  Nice/  Collythus  did  not  ordain  by  virtue 
of  his  office  as  presbyter,  but  as  if  he  was  a  bishop,  who 
presided  over  presbyters,  which  he  was  not,  and  such 
he  was  afterwards  judicially  decided  never  to  have 
been.  It  has  been  alleged  that  Ischyras  had  no  church, 
had  been  ordained  by  a  schismatic,  and  out  of  the  dio- 
cess.  There  is  also  another  ground  which  Athanasius 
has  particularly  stated,  "Mareotes  was  a  part  of  Alex- 
andria, and  there  never  was  a  bishop  or  chorepiscopus 
constituted  in  it,  but  the  churches  of  the  whole  dis- 
trict were  under  the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  each  of 
the  presbyters  had  their  own  sections."^  From  the 
first  planting  of  the  gospel  in  cities,  one  presbytery 
only  existed  in  each,  and  when  from  an  increase  of 
numbers  there  were  many  places  of  worship,  the  pres- 
byters served  in  the  different  congregations,  but  ordin- 
nations  were  performed  only  by  the  presbytery  of 
the  city,  and  each  had  its  permanent  president,  rtposo7coj, 
who  was  afterwards  called  Eiuaxorto;,  bishop,  a  name  at 
first  common  to  all  presbyters.  If  a  single  presbyter 
should  exercise  the  power  of  ordination,  especially 
within  the  district,  over  which  his  presbytery  had  al- 
ways exercised  that  power,  it  was  deservedly  account- 

J  Ibid.    p.    616.       vtto  yap  kowqvQov  too  Trgirfiulepou  qx.vl*a-Qinoc 

ITrlS-KOTTIIV,  &c. 

e  Council  of  Nice.  Canon  iv. 
f  Canon,  vi. 

g  o  Mctgea>7#c  X^P*  /r*{  AAs£*vJgs;*c  es"7/  x.a.1  cvSnrfli  et  t»  pt*P* 
ytycviY  trio  xo7roc,  cvfi  ^oagtTT tint  otto;,  clkko.  thit»{  A\«£tf.Vefg£/*c 
t?ri<rx.G7ra>  tti  ix.xA>i(ricti  srstcrjic  txc  ^ag*?  wcxavlxty  mxalac  Si  t«f 
irgte-fiultgw  mu  to.;  ifm;  KcepoLc. — Athan.  apol.  ii. 


OF   CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  121 

ed  a  nullity,  and  such  an  unfounded  claim  of  presi- 
dency by  Collythus  was  properly  denied  him  by  his 
brethren . 

The  important  life  of  Athanasius  was  devoted 
to  the  defence  of  truth,  and  almost  all  that  he 
wrote,  was  in  vindication  of  that  cause  which  he  had 
successfully  defended  in  the  council  of  Nice.  A  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  tracts  collected  together  as 
his  works,  were  certainly  not  his,  and,  among  the  rest, 
the  creed  that  goes  by  his  name.  But  his  genuine  writ- 
ings remain  to  this  day  second  to  no  human  production 
on  the  subject  of  the  Trinity.  At  length  he  terminat- 
ed his  tempestuous  voyage  of  life,  A.  D.  373. 

About  the  same  period  lived  Optatus,  bishop  of 
Milevis,  a  city  of  Numidia,  who  wrote  six  books 
against  Parmenianus,  the  successor  of  Majorinus. 
After  the  death  of  Mensurius  their  bishop,  the  Chris- 
tian people  of  the  city  of  Carthage  elected  Ccecilianus, 
who  was  ordained  by  the  neighbouring  bishops;  those 
of  Numidia,  who  had  been  neglected,  took  offence,  con- 
vened and  ordained  Majorinus,  altar  against  altar. 
Ccecilianus  was  an  archdeacon  when  ordained ;  and 
Majorinus  being  of  the  same  order,  his  reader,  received 
ordination.'1  Neither  did  the  Donatists  object  this  cir- 
cumstance against  Ccecilianus,  nor  the  Catholics  deem 
it  an  objection  to  the  ordination  of  Majorinus.  These 
facts  are  mentioned  merely  in  confirmation  of  the  simi- 
lar occurrence  alleged  in  the  account  of  the  ordination 
of  Athanasius,  being  free  from  every  imputation  of  in- 
formality, because  the  episcopal  was,  as  we  have  seen, 
originally,  and  ought  ever  to  be  deemed  really,  the 
presbyterial  ordination,  and  not  of  two  kinds,  for  of 
presbyters  there  are  not  two  kinds,  which  the  modern 
notion  of  lay  presbyters  gratuitously  supposes. 

The  classification  of  the  clergy  by  this  writer,  per- 
fectly accords  with  those  of  his  century.  In  the  first 
priesthood,  he  places  bishops;  in  the  second,  presby- 

1  Optat  Lib.  i.  p.  18.  Adhuc  diaconum  ordinarent  Coecilianum, 
p.  19.  Majorinus,  qui  lector  in  diaconis  Coeciliani  fuerat,  episcopu. 
ordinatus  est,  &c. 

M 


122  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

ters;  in  the  third,  deacons,  and  other  ministers.*    When 
he  mentions  the  aged  men  among  the  people,  he  cau- 
tiously avoids  the  use  of  the  term  presbyter,  lest  its 
official  should  be  mistaken  for  its  appellative  meaning; 
and  adopts  the  word  senior,  or  some  equivalent  phrase. 
Thus,  when  relating  the  obedience  of  Mensurius  to  im- 
perial process,  the  doubtfulness  of  his  return  to  Car- 
thage, and  his  anxiety  about  the  safety  of  the  treasures 
of  the  church,  he  says,  "He  committed  them  to  old 
men  deemed  worthy  of  trust,  taking  an  inventory  of 
them,  which  he  delivered  to  an  old  woman,  with  direc- 
tions to  deliver  it  to  whomsoever  she  should  observe  to 
be  the  occupant  of  the  episcopal  chair." k    It  is  evident 
that  these  seniors  were  communicants,  for  when  the 
property  was  demanded,  they  withdrew  from  the  com- 
munion; but  neither  resignation  of  office,  nor  deposi- 
tion is  mentioned.     Nor  does  any  circumstance  appear 
that  would  lead  to  the  conclusion,  that  they  had  been 
officers.     They  were  selected  quasi  fideles,  upon  the 
ground  of  character;  their  being  communicants  and 
aged,  were  circumstances  conducive  to  confidence: 
and  the  inventory  was  for  still  greater  security,  taken 
and  intrusted  to  an  aged  woman.     The  last  precaution 
would  scarcely  have  been  adopted,  had  they  been  offi- 
cers, and  consequently  as  such  deemed  worthy  of  trust 
by,  and  responsible  to,  the  church.     The  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case,  the  use  of  the  word  seniores, 
not  presbyteri,  the  fact  that  presbyters  at  that  period 
were  second  in  the  priesthood,  added  to  the  circum- 

•  P.  13.  "Quid  commemorcm  laicos, — quid  ministros  plurimos? 
quid  diaconos  in  tertio  ?  quid  presbyteros  in  secundo  sacerdotio  con- 
stitutes? Ipsi  apices  et  principes  omnium  episcopi,  &c.  lib.  ii.  p. 
39.  'Certa  membra  sua  habet  ecclesia,  episcopos,  presbyteros,  dia- 
conos, ministros,  etturbam  fidelium.'  Ibid.  p.  46. — "Cum  sintqua- 
tuor  genera  capitum  in  ecclesia,  episcoporum,  presbyterorum,  dia- 
conorum,  et  fidelium,"  &c.  "Invenistis  diaconos,  presbyteros,  epis- 
copos, fecistis  laicos." 

k  Ibid.  lib.  i.  p.  17.  "Quse,  quasi  fidelibus,  senioribus  commen- 
davit  commemoratorio  facto,  quod  cuidam  aniculz  dedisse  dicitur; 
ita  ut  si  ipse  non  rediret,  reddita  pace  Cliristianis,  anicula  illi  daret 
ciuem  in  episcopali  cathedra  sedentem  inveniret." 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  123 

stance,  that  even  the  deacons  were  clerical,  render  it 
strange  that  this  passage  should  have  been  thought  any 
proof  of  the  existence  of  subordinate  official  presby- 
ters. That  the  office  of  "ruling  elders''  in  protestant 
churches  should  have  been  attempted  to  be  supported 
by  those  passages  which  in  ancient  writers,  represent 
the  aged  of  the  church  to  have  been  called  upon  for 
advice  or  testimony,  argues  equal  deficiency  of  proofs, 
and  intemperance  of  zeal. 

The  terms  major  natu  and  senior,  denoting  an  aged 
man,  and  thus  corresponding  in  meaning  to  the  Greek 
word  presbyter,  have  been  by  such  Latin  writers  as  Cy- 
prian, who  was  inimical  to  the  office  of  presbyter,  sub- 
stituted for  it  in  its  official  sense;  but  it  is  believed, 
upon  careful  examination,  that  Optatus  has  done  so  in 
no  instance.  And  the  supposition  that  at  this  period 
there  were  inferior  to  deacons,  who  were  all  preach- 
ers, certain  lay  officers  or  ruling  elders,  who  were  de- 
nominated seniores  and  seniores  plebis,  is  destitute  of  sup- 
port. Whence  did  they  spring?  Were  they  a  species 
of  presbyter?  and  if  so,  how  came  they  to  be  laymen? 
By  what  means,  and  on  what  occasion,  did  the  dea- 
cons rise  above  them?  And  where  is  the  proof  that 
there  were  two  branches  of  elders,  a  higher  and  a 
lower?'1  The  seniores  in  civil  society-,  and  the  seniores 
ecclesicB  were  evidently  men  of  advanced  age.  Eccle- 
siastic may  indeed  be  synonymous  with  clerical,  but 
ecclesiastici  viri  signified  men  belonging  to  the  church, 
in  contradistinction  unto  those  members  of  society  who 
were  not  of  the  church.  Thus  in  Augustine  we  find 
presbyters  and  seniores  made  parties  to  a  suit,  and  of  the 
same  side,  the  former  as  officers  of  the  church,  and 
the  latter  as  private  citizens  holding  the  legal  title  to 
the  property  or  possession,  claimed  by  them  as  seniores 
plebis,  the  representatives  of  the  people  of  the  church, 
in  which  respect  they  were  ecclesiastici  viri. 

'  M«  xa8«irSet/  iv  /uta- a>  1 'my  7r£t<r@v1i£aiv  i^icrlmlm  Jislxovok,  it  must 
not  be  allowed  to  deacons  to  sit  in  the  midst  of  presbyters. — Coun- 
cil of  Nice,  Can.  xviii. 


124  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

They  were  more  generally  called  seniores  plebis,  be- 
cause they  were  neither  members  of  the  presbytery, 
nor  were  they  deacons,  or  of  the  lower  clergy.  To 
them,  no  trust,  no  authority,  no  clerical  duty  is  ever  as- 
signed; but  in  matters  of  moment,  their  opinions  and 
sage  advices  were  sought,  and  considered  as  the  coun- 
sel of  the  people.  This  wholesome  practice  was  not 
improperly  followed  at  the  reformation,  as  we  may  at 
some  period  see;  but  this  was  no  apology  for  foisting 
into  the  church  of  Christ  a  new  office,  and  casting  out 
deacons,  into  whose  place  and  employment,  ruling  el- 
ders have  been  intruded.  But  they  are  still  properly 
accounted  deacons,  and  commissioned  as  such  in  many 
of  our  churches ;  but  where  they  are  considered  of- 
ficers, ftposalujt;  jtpsofivlegot,  ruling  elders,  they  are  impro- 
perly named,  unauthorized  by  the  New  Testament,  and 
without  example  in  the  ancient  churches.  Ecclesias- 
tical government  from  the  days  of  Constantine  became 
through  the  influence  of  the  council  of  Nice,  nearly 
uniform  throughout  the  civilized  world.  The  advo- 
cates of  clerical  authority  by  uniting  church  and  state, 
reared  an  episcopal  monopoly  of  power,  friendly  to 
despotism,  and  therefore  carefully  cherished  by  the 
Christian  emperors ;  but  presbyters  were  nowhere, 
even  in  a  solitary  instance,  reduced  to  the  condition  of 
laymen.  In  almost  every  writer,  hitherto  examined, 
some  evidence  of  primitive  parity  in  the  ordinary 
preaching  office  may  be  found,  but  almost  as  soon  as 
civil  powrer  took  the  side  of  Christianity,  the  clerical 
superiority,  which  had  been  gained  by  courtesy  and 
claimed  by  usage,  boasted  a  right  to  govern,  and  as- 
sumed a  threatening  aspect. 

The  views  which  Hilary  the  deaqon  has  been  ob- 
served to  have  retained  of  the  office  of  presbyter  or 
bishop,  were  precisely  those  of  Aerius  his  contempo- 
rary, who  escaped  not  clerical  persecution,  though  far 
distant  in  Cappadocia  or  Pontus.  The  name  of  the 
former  has  been  almost  blotted  out,  that  of  the  latter 
consigned  to  infamy  and  detestation.  That  he  swerv- 
ed to  the  Arian  side  is  probable,  but  this  was  not  the 


OF   CHRISTIAN   CHURCHES.  125 

cause  of  his  offensiveness.  Eustathius,  his  unequal 
but  preferred  competitor,  was  avowedly  of  the  same 
party.  He  did  indeed  condemn  prayers  and  offerings 
for  the  dead,  and  the  observance  of  the  public  Jewish 
fasts;  but  his  great  crime  lay  in  holding  that  mortifying 
truth,  that  the  presbyterial  and  episcopal  offices  were 
originally  the  same,  and  in  withdrawing  from  the 
church  of  Sebastia.m  Augustine  refers  to  Epiphanius, 
who  represents  him  to  have  asked,  "  as  to  what  is  a 
bishop  before  a  presbyter?  In  what  do  they  differ? 
The  order  is  the  same,  the  honor  one,  and  the  excel- 
lence one;  the  bishop  imposes  hands,  and  so  does  the 
presbyter;  the  bishop  performs  the  whole  of  public 
worship,  and  the  presbyter  in  like  manner ;  the  bishop 
sits  upon  a  throne  and  so  does  the  presbyter."11  No 
mention  is  here  made  of  any  difference  among  pres- 
byters. Had  there  existed  some,  who  laboured  not  in 
word  and  doctrine,  but  were  subordinate,  they  ought  to 
have  been  excepted.  Of  such  we  have  found  no,  not 
the  least,  intimation  in  any  writer  in  ancient  times. 
But  from  the  earliest  period,  7tgosa7u>7s$,  or  presiding 
presbyters,  whom  an  apostle  deemed  worthy  of  dou- 
ble honor,  have  been  of  common  occurrence,  and  at 
length  having  monopolized  the  name  bishop,  did  in  the 
age  which  is  passing  under  our  present  examination, 
with  the  aid  of  the  civil  power,  erect  themselves  into  a 
superior  order,  against  which  it  was  the  honor  and  in- 
felicity of  Aerius,  to  bear  his  testimony.  His  fate  fur- 
nishes another  example,  that  truth  is  a  feeble  defence 
against  power.     His  motives  we  know  not;  if  disap- 

m  Augustin.  torn.  vi.  col.  25.  Orare,  vel  offerre  promortuis  ob- 
lationem  non  oportere,  nee  statuta  solemniter  celebranda  esse  jeju- 
nia,  sed  cum  quisque  voluerit  jejunandum,  ne  videatur  esse  sub 
lege,  presbyterum  ab  episcopo  nulla  differentia  debere  discerni. 

n  Epiphani.  adv.hxres.lib.  iii.  torn.  i.  p.  906.    TutIiv  i7ri<rx.t»nros 

5TgOC  7rpiT@u7 (£<»!•    OuflV    S'lUWCtllll    GuloC  TGUTGV  .    fJLltL  yctg    t</] IV    7al£«, 

*al  (xm.  riftn,  x.a.1  h  ct^iaifxet.  ^iigobilil — t7ri?x.o?roe  ctXXet  xxl  o 
srg«sv3u7s§oc.  xot/Tgcv  S'iSceo-iv  o  i7ritrx.o7ros>  ofxoiuis  uj  «  wgST/Si/^sgcc, 
thy  ouovofAittv  Taj  Kctlpiict;  irom  o  i7ri<rx.o7ro;,  *«.»  o  7rgt<r&vligot 
arzurco;,  jcaSs^Vr**  o  t7rnnct7ro;  tTTi  rou  Sgovov,  x.ctQigtrx.1  icctt  a 
TrgtT@v7epc{. 

m2 


126  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,  &C. 

pointment  was  his  inducement,  nevertheless  the  ground 
he  assumed  was  the  truth,  and  was  supported  by  am- 
ple proofs;  it  is  also  very  clear  that  the  opposition 
which  prevailed  against  him,  was  not  because  he  was 
an  Arian,  but  because  he  espoused  a  plan  of  reform, 
which  ecclesiastical  policy  could  not  tolerate.0  Had 
he  only  borne  his  testimony  against  the  clerical  abuses 
of  his  day,  and  not  actually  withdrawn  from  the  hier- 
archy, he  might  have  escaped  persecution.  Then 
ceasing  to  be  an  object  of  odium,  he  would  have  drop- 
ped into  oblivion,  the  common  receptacle  of  the  names 
of  thousands,  who  have  succumbed  unto,  or  perished  in 
opposing  the  ecclesiastical  tyranny  of  the  ages  in 
which  they  lived,  preferring  a  good  conscience  and 
poverty  of  spirit,  characteristics  of  the  saints,  to  the 
worldly  policy,  and  personal  aggrandizement  of  the 
haughty  successors  of  the  despised  fishermen  of  Ga- 
lilee. 

0  Hooker's  justification  (Eccles.  pol.  iii.  130.)  of  the  sentence 
against  Aerius  on  account  of  "his  fault  in  condemning' the  order  of 
the  church,  and  his  not  submitting  himself  unto  that  order,"  is  pre- 
dicated upon,  either  the  infallibility  of  the  church,  or  her  authority 
by  which  she  can  sanctify  error.  If  a  "madman,"  [Mx.via>Sv;, 
Epiph.]  his  madness  lay  in  following  the  Scriptures,  and  the  first 
government  of  the  churches;  for  as  Stillingfleet  observes  (Ireni- 
cum  276,)  "upon  the  strictest  inquiry  Medinas'  judg'ment  will 
prove  true,  that  Jerom,  Augustine,  Ambrose,  Sudulius,  Primasius, 
Chrysostom,  Theodoret,  Theoplylact  were  all  of  Aerius's  judg- 
ment as  to  the  identity  of  both  the  name  and  order  of  bishops, 
and  presbyters,  in  the  primitive  church."  When  Potter  un- 
justly infers  from  the  same  facts,  (Church  Gov.  p.  193,)  that, 
**it  was  the  received  opinion  in  that  age,  that  the  order  of 
bishops  was  superior  to  that  of  presbyters;"  he  should  ra- 
ther have  said,  that  such  superiority  was,  in  that  age,  the 
law  of  the  church  established  against  the  truth,  and  the  word  of 
God.  For  the  crime  imputed  to  Aerius,  appears  neither  to  have 
been  error  nor  fake  doctrine,  but  schism;  a  sin  for  which  the  church 
adjudges  the  minority  in  every  ecclesiastical  separation  punishable; 
and  the  civil  law,  that  party  "which  opposes  itself  to  the  religion 
of  the  state;"  in  the  view  of  each,  propriety  of  motives,  and  ac- 
cordance of  doctrines  and  discipline  with  the  word  of  God,  are  so 
far  from  justifying,-that  the  allegation  has  been  in  every  other  case, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  "madness"  of  Aerius,  a  confession  of  guilt. 


SECTION  XIV. 

Basil  the  Great ;  his  advantages  of  education  ;  succeeded  Athanasius  as  head 
of  the  orthodox  against  the  Arians. — Like  him,  he  exercised  the  clerical 
power  gained  by  the  canons.— He  knew  that  a  presbyter  was  originally  the 
highest  ordinary  officer. — Gregory  of  Nazianzum  complained  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal distinctions  as  innovations,  and  shunned  the  convocations  of  bishops  as 
causes  of  evil,  and  attributes  their  consecrations  to  a  love  of  superiority. — 
Gregory  of  Nyssa  was  the  brother  of  Basil,  and  accounted  all  who  presided 
in  the  church  to  be  presbyters- 

Basil  the  Great,  was  a  native  of  Csesarea,  in  Cappa- 
docia.  Born  about  three  years  after  the  council  of 
Nice,  he- received  the  advantages  of  an  education  at 
Constantinople  and  Athens,  as  well  as  at  Antioch  in 
Syria.  The  same  instructions  matured  Basil  and  Ju- 
lian for  their  different  spheres  in  life.  Basil  became  a 
presbyter,  and  whilst  such,  was  elected  metropolitan ; 
this"  being  then  deemed  the  order  of  advancement. b 
An  ornament  of  the  church,0  in  eloquence  he  was 
second  to  no  one/1  Left  by  the  death  of  Athanasius 
at  the  head  of  the  orthodox  party,  when  Arianism 
possessing  the  government,  reigned  without  mercy, 
his  firmness  of  faith  and  intrepidity  of  conduct,  over- 
came the  pusillanimous  Valens,  and  proved  of  signal 
advantage  to  the  cause.  He  presided  through  the 
short  but  stormy  period  of  about  nine  years,  and  died, 
A.  D.  378.  Placed  at  first  over  a  numerous  synod  of 
bishops,  he  soon  witnessed  the  dismemberment  of  his 
charge.  Five  provinces  arose  out  of  Cappadocia. 
Canonical  was  the  offspring  of  civil  power,  and  was 

a  Socrat.  Schol.  lib.  iv.  c.  21.  Greg.  Naz.  Oper.  vol.  i.  p.  785. 
"  T»v  v&jriv  rou  @>i/!a-j.tos.     Ibid.  336. 


Th?  i)LK.\tT txs  o  xor/u.oc  ficurixao;.     Photius,  890. 
Ot/cTavcf  Sivti^os.     Idem.  378. 


128  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

obliged,  as  yet,  reasonably  to  succumb  to  it.  Nyssa, 
the  charge  of  Gregory,  his  brother,  remained  ;  but  Na- 
zianzum,  of  the  other  Gregory,  was  assigned  to  Cap- 
padocia  tertia. 

Basil,  who  could  deny  himself  every  thing  but  eccle- 
siastical power,  in  a  letter  to  Amphilochius,  the  metro- 
politan of  Lycaonia,  relative  to  churches  which  could 
be  claimed  by  neither  of  them,  says  :e  "  You  yourself 
know,  that  of  whatsoever  sort  they  who  preside  are,  of 
the  same  kind  will  the  habits  of  those  who  are  govern- 
ed generally  be.  Wherefore,  it  is  perhaps  better  that 
some  approved  person,  if  it  be  possible,  be  appointed 
to  the  government  of  the  city,  and  allowed  to  manage 
all  concern's  upon  his  own  responsibility ;  only,  if  pos- 
sible, let  him  be  a  servant  of  God,  a  workman  not  to  be 
ashamed,  not  looking  after  his  own  things,  but  those  of  the 
many,  that  they  may  be  saved."  Over  the  small  cities 
and  little  villages,  instead  of  a  bishop's  seat,  which  they 
formerly  respectively  had,  he  thought  there  should  be 
placed  csgoiotaijievoi,  presiding  clergy,  and  over  the  chief 
city  a  bishop ;  so  that  Isaurus,  a  seat  of  Arianism, 
might  be  girded  around,  and  that  Basil  and  Amphi- 
lochius should  afterwards  ordain  bishops  as  circum- 
stances might  require. 

Such  were  the  ambitious  views  and  artful  contri- 
vances of  one  of  the  most  pious,  eloquent,  and  learned 
metropolitans  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century, 
communicated  to  another  of  the  same  rank,  who  was, 
no  doubt,  also  of  the  same  mind.  Zeal  against  heresy 
was  their  plausible  apology,  thirst  for  domination  the 
secret  spring,  and  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice 
the  basis  of  that  authority,  and  the  rule  of  its  exercise, 
which  they  claimed  and  exerted  in  opposition  to  the 
word  of  God,  and  the  express  command  of  the  head 
of  the  church,  who  had  interdicted  the  claim  of  lord- 
ship over  his  servants. 

In  his  commentary  upon  Isaiah  iii.  2,  on  the  word 
"  ancient"  (ip»  elder)  he  observes  :  "  Among  the  things 

e  Basil,  vol.  iii.  p.  422. 


OF   CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  129 

that  are  threatened,  is  also  the  removal  of  the  elder, 
seeing  that  the  advantage  of  his  presence  is  not  smalL 
An  elder  is  he,  who  is  dignified  with  the  first  seat,  and 
enrolled  in  the  presbytery,  bearing  the  character  of  a 
presbyter;  especially,  indeed,  if  he  be  an  unmarried 
man,  or  if  even,  according  to  the  law  of  the  Lord/  the 
husband  of  one  wife,  having  faithful  children,  jiot  accused 
of  riot,  or  unruly,  he  being  not  self-zvilled,  not  soon  angry, 
neither  given  to  wine,  nor  filthy  lucre,  but  a  lover  of  hospi- 
tality, and  of  the  good;  sober,  holy,  just,  temperate; 
holding  fast  the  faithful  word  according  to  doctrine,  that  he 
may  be  able,  by  sound  instruction,  both  to  exhort  and  to 
convince  gainsayers ;  this  is  the  elder  whom  the  Lord 
will  take  away  from  a  sinful  people."^  This  elucida- 
tion of  the  character  of  a  Jewish  elder,  in  the  words 
of  Paul's  description  of  a  Christian  bishop,  evinces 
that  Basil  knew  that  in  the  days  of  the  apostles  the 
office  was  the  same.  The  eloquent  metropolitan, 
perceiving  that  the  terms  presbyter  and  bishop  had 
been  promiscuously  used  in  the  direction  given  to 
Titus,  drops  the  latter  name,  and  attributes  the  cha- 
racteristics enumerated  with  both  to  the  presbyter, 
that  he  might  suitably  represent  the  magnitude  of  the 
calamity  expressed  in  the  prophetic  denunciation. 
Few  in  his  day  enjoyed  or  more  valued  cleiical  pre- 
ferment; but  its  canonical  origination,  yet  inchoate, 
was  then  so  far  from  being  a  matter  of  concealment, 
that  it  was  the  vaunted  basis  of  pre-eminence  and 
power.  The  testimony  of  this  bishop  of  bishops  is  a 
candid  confession,  that,  at  the  first,  the  occupant  of 
the  highest  seat  in  a  church  was  a  presbyter,  and 
that  such  were  instructed  in  sound  doctrine,  and  able 
to  exhort  and  convince.  This  proof  does  not  even 
surmise  the  existence  of  presbyters  of  different  kinds, 
and  is,  therefore,  in  utter  exclusion  of  those  of  the 
imaginary  inferior  grade. 

In  his  "  Morals,"  he  classes  together  in  one  chap- 

f  Titus  i.  6—9. 

s  Basil,  tom.ii.  p.  96. 


130  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

ter,  directed  to  the  same  object,  the  Scriptural  cha- 
racter and  duties  of  bishops  and  presbyters,  taken 
from  the  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus,  and  places 
them  under  the  title  of  "  What  things  are  said  con- 
junctly concerning  bishops  and  presbyters. "h 

The  next  chapter  has  the  title,  "  Concerning  dea- 
cons,"1 and  details  their  first  appointment  from  the 
acts  of  the  apostles,  and  some  of  their  moral  qualifica- 
tions from  the  epistle  to  Titus.  Thus  he  discovers  his 
opinion,  that  there  are  mentioned  in  those  Scriptures 
but  two  offices,  presbyters  or  bishops,  and  deacons. 
Had  there  been  known  in  his  day  the  supposed  inter- 
mediate office  of  mute  presbyters,  some  intimation  of 
them  on  this  occasion  might  have  been  expected.  But 
the  silence  of  non-existence  then  reigned  on  the  sub- 
ject of  an  order  in  the  church  of  which  no  one  had 
conceived  an  idea. 

Gregory,  bishop  of  Nazianzum,  the  son  of  the  first 
of  the  name  and  office,  was  the  friend  and  companion 
of  Basil  the  Great,  and  was  affirmed,  but  with  doubt- 
ful probability,  to  have  been  his  senior.  He  studied  in 
Palestine,  at  Alexandria,  and  afterward  at  Athens. 
Notwithstanding  the  preference  attributed  by  Photius 
to  Basil,  the  writings  of  no  Christian  father  exhibit 
more  the  luxuriance  of  imagery,  and  charms  of  elo- 
quence, than  do  those  of  this  Gregory.k  Sasima,  over 
which  he  was  at  first  appointed  bishop,  would  be 
deemed,  in  our  day,  an  impoverished  parish.  His 
complaints  were  removed,  but  his  sphere  was  still 
limited,  when,  after  his  father's  death,  he  was  chosen 
bishop  of  Nazianzum.  He  went  to  Constantinople, 
A.  D.  376,  and  four  years  afterwards  was  placed  by 
Theodosius  in  the  great  church  of  that  city,  instead 
of  Demophilus,  who  had  been  ejected  for  Arian  prin- 


h  Oo-st   jc*t*   tri/vcKpe/av    tignTO.i   <anpi  frio-x.07riuv  x,xi  urgtrfivripair. 
Basil,  torn.  ii.  491. 

i  nipt  SictKivcov.     Ibid. 
Gregorius  primuro  Sasimoram  deinde  Nazienzenus  episcopus 
vir  eloquentissimus  preceptor  meus.     Jerom.  vol.  i.  cap.  117. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  131 

ciples,  which  appointment  was  confirmed  by  the  first 
council  of  Constantinople. 

The  piety  of  this  father  forbids  us  to  think  he  would 
have  inveighed  against  ecclesiastical  pre-eminence,  if 
he  had  thought  the  higher  clerical  orders  of  his  day 
founded  on  the  sacred  Scriptures  ;  yet  he  complains : 
"  How  I  wish  there  had  been  no  -precedence,  agocSpia,  no 
priority  of  place,  tonov  repot  1^01^,  no  authoritative  dicta- 
torship, -tvpwvixri  apovojua,  that  we  might  be  distinguished 
by  virtue  only.  But  now  this  right  hand,  and  left 
hand,  and  middle,  and  higher,  and  lower ;  this  going 
before,  and  following  in  company,  have  produced  to 
us  much  unprofitable  affliction,  brought  many  into  a 
snare,  and  thrust  them  away  into  the  company  of  the 
goats  ;  not  only  of  the  inferior  class,  but  also  of  the 
shepherds,  zoho  being  masters  in  Israel  have  not  knovm 
these  things.1  To  affirm,  that  the  validity  of  ordinances 
depends  on  the  truth  of  the  grace  of  him  who  admin- 
isters, is  error ;  but  to  acknowledge  those  to  be  of- 
ficers in  Christ's  church  who  deny  him  and  his  sacri- 
fice, is  to  acknowledge  men  to  be  what  they  disclaim. 
Such  was  the  sentiment  of  Gregory  relative  to  the 
Arians  ;  for  speaking  of  the  succession  of  Athanasius 
to  the  seat  of  Mark  in  Alexandria,  he  observes: 
"Sameness  of  doctrine  is  sameness  of  chair,  and  oppo- 
sition of  sentiments  is  also  opposition  of  office,  for  the 
one  has  the  name,  and  the  other  the  truth  of  the  suc- 
cession.1" They  only  are  of  the  church  who  are 
members  of  the  body  of  Christ ;  from  them  the  rest 
are  denominated,  and  where  they  are  not,  there  is  no 
church.  In  his  apology  to  Procopius  for  not  coming 
to  a  council  at  Constantinople,  he  thus  expresses  him- 
self: "It  is  my  desire,  if  the  truth  may  be  told,  to 
shun  every  convocation  of  bishops,  because  I  have 
seen  the  termination  of  no  synod  advantageous,  not 
producing  the  removal  of  evils  so  much  as  the  accu- 
mulation of  them ;  for  the  love  of  strife,  and  jeal- 

1  G.eg.  Nas.  vol.  i.  p.  484. 
m  Idem.  vol.  i.  p.  377. 


132  THE    PRIMITIVE   GOVERNMENT 

ousy  of  power,  if  you  will  allow  me  to  write  it,  do  even 
exceed  utterance."11  In  a  letter  to  Philagrius,  he 
says :  "  We  are  worn  out  striving  against  envy  and 
consecrated  bishops,  who  destroy  the  common  peace, 
and  subordinate  the  word  of  faith  to  their  own  love  of 
superiority."0 

In  a  description  of  the  church  at  Byzantium,  which 
he  calls  the  eye  of  the  world,  the  chain  by  which  the  east 
and  the  west  are  connected,  and  the  common  empo- 
rium of  the  faith,  he  observes  :  "  Behold  the  bench  of 
presbyters,  dignified  by  age  and  understanding ;  the 
regularity  of  the  deacons,  not  far  from  the  same  spirit ; 
the  decency  of  the  readers ;  the  attention  of  the  peo- 
ple, as  well  in  the  men  as  in  the  women,  equal  in  vir- 
tue."0 

Here  are  presbyters,  deacons,  readers,  and  people. 
This  church  cannot  be  presumed  to  have  been  defec- 
tive of  any  class  of  officers  existing  in  other  churches  ; 
yet  in  it  inferior  elders  found  no  place.  Had  such  a 
grade  then  existed,  it  is  unaccountable,  that  in  every 
enumeration  they  should  have  been  studiously  con- 
cealed. 
/  In  his  twenty-sixth  oration,  he  has  said  many  things 
of  the  diversity  of  stations  in  the  church,  with  eloquent 
persuasives  to  subordination,  and  contentedness  with 
their  respective  allotments,  but  designedly  in  generals. 
In  his  allusion  to  1  Cor.  xii.  28,  he  explains  helps, 
avtarj^sii,  by  a^ogtagtai,  whereby  he  meant  those  who 
took  care  of  weaker  Christians,  to  counsel  them,  and 

n  Greg.  N.  vol.  i.  p.  814.  E^»  /mv  ovtoic,  a  Su  rttxnQic  ypzquv, 
axTTS  <arstvTct  o-vxhoyov  qvyitv  t^sri^KO'nraiv,  cri  /unSt/moc  o-uvoJ'ou  t«xoc 
ttfov  %p»vrov,  fJinSi  Xvirtv  HZKcev  /XO.KK0V  nrfciix.uia.;,  »  5t^0(tS«xmv.  tt'l 
yttp  Qixovzix.ia.t  kai  qiAetpxix.  axx*  orrai?  //xts  <*c/>t/xov  v7rt>KaL^yit 
outs)  yp'jLQGVrn  kcli  Kcyov  xpziTTOvie. 

o  Idem.  vol.  i.  p.  823.  K.w/u»Ka.(Aiv  ctyavi^o/uivoi  vrpoc  tov  qQoiov 
axi  t:uc  itfiov;  iTTiVKCTrov;,  r»v  koiv»v  o/uovoixv  Siakuovtci;  km  todv  tSicet 

qiXOVltKltoV   TO   TJKT/3"TE£Df  TTHpipycV  7T0lZ)fJt.tV0S. 

V  Vol.  i.  p.  517.  l<f£  Tr^tTfiuTipuiv  a-uveSptoy  voxix  kcli  <rt/m; 
TiTW/zM^svav;  Sizkovuv  (utol^iav,  ou  Troppte  <rov  etwrov  TryiufAcnitr 
a.yvnT'rmv  ivKOs-y.ia.v;  \<lov  <pi\o/xa.Qia.Y}  o<rov  ty  «»<fy:to-/v,  s<rot  <ru 
yn^i^i  txv  ctpernv  o/uon/uctt;. 


OP   CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  133 

protect  them  when  persecuted ;  and  by  governments, 
%v$t$vrt<5iii,  he  understood  efcuSaycoyia  tfapxoj,  those  who 
admonished  persons  addicted  to  sensuality.  To  con- 
ceive the  idea,  that  these  terms  were  used  for  lay 
presbyters,  was  left  for  a  novelty  to  generations  then 
future.  That  the  office  of  Gregory  the  father,  as 
bishop  of  Nazianzum,  to  which  the  son  was  afterwards 
chosen,  was  that  of  a  ruling  elder,  or  presiding  pres- 
byter, appears  in  his  own  words,  when  he  styles  him- 
self "  a  little  shepherd,  the  president  of  a  small  flock, 

flfot/Mji'   o^tyoj,    xao    tioopviov    fiix^ov    tigosStyxu;.  "cl        This     is 

confirmed  also  by  his  representation  of  Basil  as  a 
presbyter,  and  a  co-presbyter  with  himself.  In  a  cir- 
cular, preserved  in  the  works  of  his  son,  he  says,  that 
"  he  would  prefer  no  one  of  all  those  who  were  in 
honor  among  them,  to  his  son  Basil,  a  presbyter  most 

beloved    of  God,   tov   @sov   fCKsd'ta'tov    viov   oqjjLUv    Batfi^ftou 

ai)iM.rtpE5l3vT'fpov."1*  Gregory  the  father,  was  an  Ante- 
nicene  bishop,  and  a  witness  of  the  clerical  aggran- 
dizement introduced  by  the  first  Christian  emperor; 
yet  whilst  he  might  approve  the  erection  of  a  Christian 
hierarchy  as  a  security  against  pagan  persecution,  he 
represents  facts  as  they  really  were ;  and  has  shown, 
that  Basil  was  no  more  than  a  presbyter  when  chosen 
to  be  metropolitan  of  Cappadocia.  Also,  in  the  next 
letter,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  the 
son,  in  the  name  of  his  father,  calling  him  "  our  son 
Basil,  a  co-presbyter,"  he  acknowledges  himself  to  be 
such.  When  his  son,  the  pious  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
found  himself  an  object  of  insidious  envy  with  those 
of  his  own  creed,  he  indignantly  refused  to  retain  the 
high  office  assigned  him  at  Constantinople.9  In  his 
place  Nectarius,  a  noble  layman,  was  elected  the  first 
bishop  of  the  east.  Gregory's  disgust  has  been  patheti- 
cally recorded  by  himself  in  two  poems.1      Also,  a 


i  Greg.  Naz.  Opera,  vol.  i.  p.  785. 
r  Ibid.  p.  786. 

s    Socrat.  Schol.  lib.  v.  c.  viii. 
1   Carmen  ix. 

N 


134  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

Latin  translation  of  a  lost  paper  appended  to  his 
works,  written  perfectly  in  his  manner,  and  generally- 
received,  exhibits  with  probability  both  his  piety  and 
chagrin.  "  Possess  for  yourselves  honors  and  power, 
things  in  your  view  of  highest  importance.  I  bid  you 
adieu,  that  you  may  indulge  your  insolence,  and  divide 
by  lot  your  patriarchates.  Govern  the  world  at  your 
pleasure,  go  from  place  to  place,  casting  down  and 
raising  up,  for  these  things  are  your  delight.  You 
may  go  on,  but  I  betake  myself  to  God,  for  him  I  live 
and  breathe,  to  him  alone  I  look,  to  whom  my  mother 
gave  me  by  vows  before  I  saw  the  light,  to  whom  I 
am  closely  bound,  as  well  by  dangers  as  endearing 
watchfulness.  To  him  will  I  consecrate  the  sincere 
affections  of  my  soul,  as  far  as  they  can  be  rendered 
his,  holding  lonely  communion  with  him  alone." 

Gregory,  the  brother  of  Basil,  after  having  taught 
rhetoric,  became  bishop  of  Nyssa,  in  Cappadocia. 
Though  commended  for  his  fluency  by  the  learned 
Photius,11  he  certainly  indulged  too  much  in  allegory. 
The  excellency  of  style,  strength  of  perception,  and 
eminency  of  piety,  have  not  hitherto  been  appreciated ; 
probably  because  he  spake  lightly  of  pilgrimages,  and 
was  a  married  man. 

We  have  seen  that  every  church,  at  first,  had  its 
presbytery,  the  presiding  member  of  which  soon  mo- 
nopolized the  name  of  overseer.  This  parochial  epis- 
copacy, except  in  cities,  continued  till  the  council  of 
Nice ;  but  these  elders  were  not  laymen.  The  hum- 
ble diocesan  episcopacy,  which  had  sprung  up  in  cities, 
from  a  constant  adherence  to  the  rule  that  one  church 
only  should  exist  in  one  place,  was  then  adopted  by 
Constantine  as  an  engine  of  power,  and  made  the 
basis  of  a  hierarchy,  guarded  by  numerous  canons, 
and  placed  in  competition  with  the  pagan  priesthood, 
which  it  soon  cast  down.  Attired  in  the  sacerdotal 
robes,  and  seated  on  thrones,  the  successors  of  the 

n  o  TroTttfAos  tmv  K>y(*i  a  vL/j-yx?  T^nyopto(.  Phot,  Bibliothec 
p.  890. 


OF   CHRISTIAN   CHURCHES.  135 

despised  Galilean  fishermen  at  length  became  the 
rulers  of  kings,  and  the  lords  of  the  world.  This  pro- 
gress was  retarded  by  ecclesiastical  jealousies.  Alter- 
nate persecutions  restrained  the  Arians  and  the  ortho- 
dox party,  and  delayed  the  full  exercise  of  canonical 
power.  Gregory  Nyssen,  from  such,  or  better  motives, 
though  a  bishop,  and  the  brother  of  his  metropolitan, 
writes  as  a  pastor  of  a  church,  rather  than  a  diocesan. 
Thus  he  observes  :v-  "  That  all  should  not  intrude 
themselves  into  a  knowledge  of  the  mysteries,  but 
choosing   one  from  themselves,  able  to  understand 

divine  things,  aX'Ka  etit%e%avtsf  s|   tavtuv  <tov  %upf;csai  ta  6st<x 

dwapsvov,  they  should  submissively  hear ;  esteeming 
worthy  of  faith  whatever  they  should  learn  of  him. 
For  it  is  said,  all  are  not  apostles,  nor  all  prophets,  but  this 
is  not  now  observed  in  many  of  the  churches.  In  an- 
other place,  speaking  of  his  own  ordination,  he  says  :w 
"  To  us  has  come  the  public  ministration  of  the  spirit- 
ual SUpper,  r}  1*1$  Ttvsvpatt,xris  srjtiadfco;  -Ksitov^yia,  whom   it 

would  better  become  to  participate  with,  than  to  com- 
municate to  others."  The  feast  here  intended  is  that 
of  the  gospel,  from  the  preaching  of  which  he  had 
hoped  to  be  excused. 

The  proximity  of  Nyssa  to  the  former  residence  of 
Thaumaturgus,  adds  credibility  to  the  account  he  has 
given  of  the  ordination  of  that  father  by  Phcedimus, 
which,  he  says,  was  in  his  absence,  words  being  sub- 
stituted for  the  hand,  avf^fi^oj.  This  had  always 
been  the  mode  pursued  in  ordaining  presbyters,  who 
were  of  one  degree.  When  presbyters  or  bishops 
were  chosen,  or  succeeded,  they  were  not  re-ordained 
in  the  two  first  centuries ;  and  when  canonical  ordi- 
nation arose,  it  was  not  performed  by  imposition  of 
hands,  but  instead  of  such  imposition,  the  deacons  held 
the  open  gospels  over  the  head  of  the  party,  who  had 
been  chosen  by  holding  up  hands.* 

r  Greg.  Nyss.  Oper.  vol.  i.  p.  220. 

w  Vol.  i.  p.  372. 

*    Taiv  <fi  StctKoyto?  t*  Quo.  tuttyytMa.  itti  txt  rsv  p^u^oTOjoufxmtiu 


136  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,  &C. 

He  has  attributed  too  much  to  Stephen,  and  also 
strangely  erred  in  the  adoption  of  the  appellative  sense 
of  the  word  deaconship,  when  he  says  :y  "  Then  Ste- 
phen, full  of  wisdom  and  grace,  was  called  by  the 
Spirit  to  the  aid  of  the  apostles.  Let  no  one  conceive 
from  the  word  deaconship,  *«  Siaxona;  ovo^atv,  that  he 
descended  below  the  apostolic  dignity,  Stvtsgsvsiv  cwtov 
«apa  ttjv  arto6to%.ixrtv  altar,  seeing  Paul  acknowledged 
himself  a  deacon,  Siaxovov,  of  the  mysteries  of  Christ."2 

After  an  apostrophe  to  the  aged  Simeon,  of  whom 
he  had  been  discoursing,  he  turns  to  those  who  pre- 
side in  the  churches,  and  says  :  "  Seeing  to  you,  and 
to  such  as  you,  adorned  with  hoary  wisdom  from 
above,  who  are  presbyters  indeed,  and  justly  styled 
the  fathers  of  the  church,  the  word  of  God  conducts 
us  to  learn  the  doctrines  of  salvation,  saying,  (Deut. 
xxxii.  7,)  Ask  thy  father,  and  he  will  shore  thee;  thy  elders, 
and  they  will  tell  thee"  Here  those  who  presided  in 
the  churches,  are  denominated,  without  exception, 
presbyters ;  and  the  official  sense  is  clearly  exhibited 
by  an  allusion  to  the  appellative  meaning  of  the  term. 
But  neither  episcopal  superiority,  nor  clerical  subor- 
dination, find  a  place.  The  latter  had  not  indeed  then 
come  into  existence :  and  though  the  former  every- 
where prevailed,  and  even  in  the  writer  himself,  yet 
his  early  impressions  guided  him  to  the  truth,  and  his 
piety  rendered  him  denied  to  the  empty  distinctions  of 
a  perishing  world. 

xs^stXiij  ctvi7rTvy/uiv*  Kcfn^ovvrccv,  8cc.     Zonar.  p.  1002.     HippoL 
vol.  ii.  n.  249. 

y   Vol.ii.  p.  788.  •  z  Vol.  ii.  p.  890. 


SECTION    XV. 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  renounced  his  ordination  of  presbyter,  to  be  ordained  by  an 
Arian,  a  bishop.  Ambrose  at  first  a  lawyer.  Compelled  tobecome  archbishop 
of  Milan.  The  commentary  on  Paul's  epistles  is  the  work  of  Hilary  the 
deacon-  His  opinion  of  the  angels  of  the  seven  churches.  Acknowledges  a 
presbyter  to  be  his  co-presbyter.  Disclaims  the  authority  of  an  apostle  and 
of  an  evangelist.     Clerical  bribery  common  in  Ms  day. 

Cyril, bishop  of  Jerusalem,  claimed  a  grade  by  ancient 
custom a  of  high  dignity;  that  church  also  venerated 
by  Christians  as  a  mother,  obtained  an  exception  in  the 
canons  of  the  council  of  Nice,  against  the  power  of 
the  Metropolitan  of  Cesarea.  "  Since  custom  has  pre- 
vailed and  ancient  tradition,  that  the  bishop  in  JE\m  is 
to  be  honored,  let  him  have  the  privileges  consecutive 
of  such  preference  s%s7a  tqv  axo-kovBaav  tr^  Tfi/j-Tji  the  pro- 
per dignity  being  secured  to  the  metropolis. "b  But  the 
purpose  of  conforming  the  hierarchy,  in  the  subordi- 
nation of  its  offices  and  the  extent  of  their  jurisdictions, 
to  the  imperial  government,  conceded  to  Jerusalem, 
through  the  indecisiveness  of  the  canon,  little  more 
than  the  name  of  a  preference.  That  Cyril  was  made 
deacon  by  Macarius,  and  afterwards  ordained  a  pres- 
byter by  Maximus ;  and  that  Acacius  the  Arian  Metro- 
politan of  Cesarea,  in  favour  with  Constantius,  re-or- 
dained Cyril  as  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  upon  the  stipulat- 
ed terms,  that  he  should  first  renounce  his  office  as 
presbyter  and  officiate  again  as  deacon,  are  facts  too 
plainly  testified  to  be  resisted.  This  stipulation  was 
unnecessary,  if  every  ordination  whereby  a  presbyter 
becomes  a  bishop  is  a  renunciation  of  his  office  as  pres- 

a  T*  ct£%a.tct  id*  vide  Council.  Nic.  can.  iv. 
b  Ibid.  can.  vii. 

if2 


138  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

byter ;  but  if  the  first  office  remains,  then  episcopal  or- 
dination resting  on  canons  and  custom  only,  is  merely 
void.  If  re-ordination  after  suspension  or  deposition 
is  never  to  be  performed,  it  follows  that  the  episcopal 
is  not  a  re-ordination,  the  authority  of  man  being  the 
foundation  of  canonical  ordination,  whilst  that  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  has  authorized  the  other.  The  ordination 
of  elders  in  presbyterian  churches,  must  be  either  of 
deacons,  or  of  presbyters,  or  a  nullity ;  if  it  be  that  of 
scriptural  presbyters,  then  as  often  as  any  such  are  af- 
terwards ordained  pastors,  there  is  an  equally  unau- 
thorized and  merely  human  re-ordination.  That  Cyril 
was  not  confusedly*  or  impiously^  ordained  bishop,  has 
been  argued  from  the  language  of  a  subsequent  coun- 
cil which  pronounced  him  "  canonically  ordained  by 
the  bishops  of  the  province."8  This  opinion  was  found- 
ed upon  the  validity  of  his  ordination  as  presbyter, 
though  effected  by  an  Athanasian  bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
without  the  sanction  of  the  Arian  Metropolitan  of  Ce- 
sarea.  Before  the  council  of  Nice,  episcopacy  was 
often  defended  by  allusions  to  the  Jewish  priesthood, 
and  their  orders ;  the  shadow  being  identified  with  the 
substa?ice,  the  obsolete  sacrificial  economy  perpetuated, 
and  the  gospel  ministry  clothed  with  the  rights  and 
prerogatives  of  the  Levitical  hierarchy.  But  the  can- 
ons of  that  council,  Constantine  being  at  its  head,  be- 
came the  supreme  law  of  the  empire,  and  reasons  of 
state  conspiring  with  clerical  ambition,  provided  that 
bishops  should  have  power  and  importance,  propor- 
tioned to  the  grade  of  the  cities  over  which  they  ec- 
clesiastically presided.  Whether  the  provisory  canon 
had  been  violated  by  the  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  or  of 

c  Sacerdotio  confusa  jam  ordinatione  suscepto.  Dissertat.  de 
vita  Cyrilli.  c.  v.  27. 

d  Quorum  Cyrillus,  quum  a  Maximo  fuisset  presbyter  ordinatus, 
et  post  mortem  ejus  ita  ei  ab  Acacio  episcopo  Cesariensi,  et  ceteris 
eplscopis  Arianis  episcopatus  permitteretur,  si  ordinationem  Maxi- 
m:  repudiasset;  diaconus  in  ecclesia  administravit;  ob  quam  impie* 
tatem  sacerdoti  mercede  pensatus. — Jerom.  Chronico. 

e  }la.vovizx.u; rt  ttu^a  tuv  ctciq^i*;  Xli^ ■'""Ssvr*.  Theod.  hist.  1. 
v.  c  9. 


OP     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  139 

Cesarea,  it  being  merely  a  human  ordinance,  and  the 
decision  of  the  second  council  of  no  higher  authority, 
Cyril  was  in  fact,  not  only  a  presbyter,  but  a  ruling  el- 
der, or  president  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem. 

In  the  last  of  his  catecheses  we  have  the  priest,  the 
presbyters,  and  the  altar,  with  subordinate  deacons. 
"  You  have  seen  a  deacon  furnishing  water  for  ablution 
to  a  priest  and  presbyters,  *<*  «g«  xat,  -tots  7i^aSvtt^oit 
encircling  the  altar  of  God.  But  he  furnished  it  not 
for  bodily  filth,  for  there  is  none,  for  we  at  first  entered 
tsysipiv  the  church,  having  no  dirt  on  our  bodies."  Was 
this  holy  water? 

In  his  catecheses,  the  last  five  of  which  are  denomi- 
nated mystagogic,  those  peculiarities  of  the  Catholics, 
which  the  Protestants  reject,  are  generally  prematurely 
recognised.  The  weight  of  these  productions  as  his- 
torical testimony  is  consequently  very  little;  but  since 
they  have  no  bearing  on  our  subject,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  marshal  the  evidence  of  their  corruptions.  The 
letter  to  Constantius  is  a  standing  monument  of  his 
weakness.  In  the  few  remains  of  his  other  writings, 
nothing  has  been  found  to  our  purpose.  The  letter  to 
Augustine  concerning  Jerom  is  certainly  not  his,  for 
he  died  about  A.  D.  386,  whilst  Jerom  was  living.  He 
was  an  imbecile,  ambitious  time-server,  alternately  or- 
thodox and  Arian,  as  his  interest  led  him.  His  piety 
must  be  submitted  to  another  tribunal ;  but  with  us, 
neither  his  personal  character,  nor  the  genuineness  of 
the  writings  attributed  to  him,  have  competent  support 
from  his  canonization. 

Ambrose  was  the  son  of  a  prsefect  of  Gaul,  where 
he  was  born  about  A.  D.  340.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
father  he  was  brought  to  Rome,  educated,  and  became 
a  pleader  of  causes.  Appointed  governor  of  Liguria 
and  Emilia,  and  attempting  to  quiet  a  tumult,  which 
had  arisen  upon  the  election  of  a  successor  to  the  bish- 
op of  Milan,  he  was  unexpectedly  nominated  and 
elected,  and  at  length  by  the  Emperor  obliged  to  accept 
the  office.  He  was  baptized,  and  within  a  week  be- 
came arch-bishop  of  Milan,  A.  D.  374,  where  he  died 


1 40  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

about  396.  His  works  consist  of  five  tomes  in  two 
volumes.  The  commentary  on  the  epistles  of  Paul 
written  by  Hilary  the  deacon  has  already  passed  under 
review ;  the.  apology  of  David,  and  several  other  por- 
tions were  the  productions  of  others. 

The  bishopric  of  Milan  adjoined  that  of  Turin,  the 
Milanese  on  the  east,  and  the  Piedmontese  on  the  west, 
being  divided  by  the  river  Ticino,  a  small  branch  of 
the  Po,  in  the  great  valley  in  which  these  two  dioceses 
lay.  The  influence  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  was  ac- 
knowledged, disavowed,  and  re-established  alike  in 
both,  till  the  times  of  Charles  the  Great. 

As  their  political  government  was  the  same,  both 
before  and  after  the  partition  of  the  Empire  in  364,  so 
was  their  ecclesiastical  of  the  same  kind.  They  were 
equally  Vallenses,  inhabiting  the  same  valley,  and  their 
religion  the  same,  both  in  the  days  of  Ambrose  and  of 
Claude.  And  since  no  such  sequestered  primitive  Chris- 
tians, as  some  have  dreamed  to  have  existed  in  that 
valley,  are  once  mentioned  in  the  works  of  this  wri- 
ter, there  is  all  the  certainty  that  a  negative  admits, 
that  there  were  none. 

In  his  commentary  upon  the  words,  "  the  seven 
stars  are  the  angels  of  the  seven  churches,"  &c.  in 
the  Apocalypse,  he  observes:  "We  ought  therefore  to 
understand  the  seven  angels  to  be  the  rectors  or  pre- 
sidents of  the  seven  churches/  because  angel  means 
messenger,  and  they  who  announce  the  word  of  God 
to  the  people,  are  not  improperly  called  angels,  that  is, 
messengers." 

A  letter  of  Syriciuss  to  the  church  at  Milan,  and 
the  answer  of  Ambrose,  signed  also  by  a  number  of 
bishops  and  presbyters,  clearly  show  the  claim  and  ac- 
knowledgment of  superiority  in  the  bishop  of  Rome, 
who  is  denominated  not  only  pastor  and  brother,  but 
Lord.     By  another,  Syricius  appears  to  have  written 

f  "Septem  igitur  ang-elos,  re rtores  scptem  ecclesiarum  debemus 
intelligere,"  &c. — Igitur  hoc,  quod  prsesuli  ecclesire  Ephesi  a  Do- 
mino dicitur,  &c.     Tom.  v.  p.  183. 

g  Tom.  v.  p.  90. 


OF    CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  141 

to  Syrus,  the  presbyter  of  Ambrose,11  to  reprove  him 
for  inattention  to  his  charge.  Ambrose  concurs,  de- 
nominating Syrus  brother  and  co-presbyter,  "  fratrem 
nostrum  et  compresbyterum  Syrum."  The  expression 
conservithim,  might  have  been  used,  if  the  canonical 
had  been  original  scriptural  distinctions,  for  there  was 
fellowship  in  their  services ;  but  co-presbyter  fairly  im- 
plies, that  the  archbishop  was  still  a  presbyter,  which 
was  strictly  true,  if  he  had  been  ordained  such,  be- 
cause the  presiding  presbyter,  "  rte,ot{Iu>s,"  is  the  very  high- 
est ordinary  officer  named  in  the  New  Testament. 
Ambrose  certainly  had  some  view  in  which  his  lan- 
guage appeared  to  himself  to  be  correct.  But  that  he 
considered  himself  a  lay  presbyter  is  inconceivable. 

That  deacons  served  tables  and  instructed  others  in' 
the  fourth  century,  may  be  inferred  from  these  words: 
"  The  apostles  did  not  esteem  it  best  to  leave  the  word 
of  God  and  serve  tables,  but  each  is  an  office  of  wis- 
dom, for  Stephen  full  of  wisdom  was  chosen  a  deacon. 
Let  him  therefore  who  waits  detail  from  him  who 
teaches,  and  let  the  teacher  invite  the  deacon.  For 
the  church  is  one  body  though  the  members  be  differ- 
ent, and  necessary  each  to  another." '  If  deacons  were 
then  teachers,  what  were  presbyters  who  were  ever 
their  superiors  ? 

Ambrose  exercised,  but  with  Christian  humility,  all 
the  powers,  which,  by  the  canons  and  customs  of  his 
day,  he  might  claim;  but  his  interpretation  of  the 
Scriptures  relative  to  the  offices  of  apostles  and  evan- 
gelists is  very  different  from  that  which  some  have 
adopted  in  our  day.  "  I  do  not  claim  the  honor  of  the 
Apostles,  for  who  (had)  this,  but  those  whom  the  Son 
of  God  himself  chose;  nor  the  grace  of  prophets, 
nor  the  authority  of  evangelists,  nor  the  circumspec- 
tion of  pastors ;  but  the  attention  and  diligence  con- 
cerning the  divine  writings,  which  the  apostles  placed 
last  among  the  duties  of  the  saints,  I  wish  only  to  at- 


>»  Tom.  v.  112,  cum  de  conservitio  nostro  aliquos  dirigis,  he, 
»  Tom.  iii.  p .  95. 


142  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

tain ;  for,  snatched  from  benches  of  justice,  and  robes 
of  government,  unto  the  priesthood,  I  have  begun  to 
teach  you,  what  I  have  not  myself  learned."k  He 
neither  considered  himself,  though  an  archbishop,  to 
be  a  successor  of  the  apostles,  nor  claimed  the  extra- 
ordinary office  of  evangelist ;  but  why  he  confined  his 
claim  to  a  part  only  of  the  pastoral  office,  is  not  dis- 
cernible, unless  it  may  be  imputed  to  his  humility. 

In  his  day,  so  soon  after  the  erection  of  Constan- 
tino's hierarchy,  bribery  had  commenced.  This  good 
man  complains,  "you  may  see  every  where,  those 
whom  not  merit,  but  money  has  advanced  to  the  order 
of  the  episcopate ;  a  weak  and  ignorant  populace,  who 
have  called  to  themselves  such  a  priest.  If  you  strict- 
ly inquire,  who  promoted  them  to  be  priests  ?  they 
forthwith  answer :  I  have  lately  been  ordained  a  bish- 
op by  the  archbishop,  and  .given  him  a  hundred  shill- 
ings, seeing  I  had  deserved  to  have  the  episcopal  grace, 
which,  if  I  had  not  paid,  I  had  not  been  a  bishop  to- 
day. Wherefore  it  is  better  for  me  to  bring  the  gold 
from  my  purse,  than  lose  such  a  priesthood.  I  gave 
the  gold,  and  obtained  the  episcopate ;  I  do  not  doubt 
that  I  shall  soon  receive,  if  I  live,  the  shillings  which 
I  love.  I  ordain  presbyters,  consecrate  deacons,  and 
receive  gold.  Lo,  the  gold  which  I  gave,  I  have  already 
received  in  my  purse.  Wherefore  the  episcopate  has 
cost  me  nothing."1     This  representation  of  archbishop 

k  Ambr.Tom.  iv.  1.  "Non  igitur  mihi  Apostolorum  gloriam  ven- 
dico.  Quis  enim  hoc,  nisi  quos  ipse  filius  elegit  Dei  ?  Non  pro- 
phetarum  gratiam,  non  virtutem  Evangelistarum,  non  pastorum  cir- 
cumspectionem;  sed  tantummodo  intentionem  et  diligentiam,  circa 
scripturas  divinas  opto  assequi,  quam  ultimam  posuit  Apostolus 
inter  officia  Sanctorum — Ego  enim  de  tribunalibus  atque  adminis- 
trationis  infulis  ad  sacerdotium  raptus,  docere  vos  cccpi,  quod  ipse 
non  didici." 

1  "Videas,  in  ecclesia  passim,  quos  non  merita  sed  pecuniae  ad 
episcopatus  ordinemprovexerunt:  nugacem  populum  et  indoctum, 
qui  talem  sibi  adsciverunt  sacerdotem.  Quos  si  percunctari  fideli- 
tur  velis,  quiseos  prseficcrit  sacerdotes,  respondent  mox  et  dicunt, 
ab  archiepiscopo  sum  nuper  episcopus  ordinatus,  centumque  soli- 
dos,  ei  dedi  ut  episcopalem  gratiam  consequi  meruissem  ;  quos  si 
minime  dedissem,  hodie  episcopus  non  essem.     Unde,  melius  est 


OP    CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  143 

or  bishops  ordaining  severally  without  the  concurrence 
of  their  brethren  of  their  respective  grades,  is  at  variance 
with  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice,  but  unless  founded 
on  fact  would  have  compromised  the  veracity  of  the 
worthy  writer.  The  assumption  of  power  is  as  common 
with  ecclesiastical  as  civil  officers ;  and,  for  various 
reasons,  effected  with  much  less  danger  of  reprehen- 
sion. But  in  this  instance  the  evil  was  of  small  mo- 
ment, because  there  was  only  at  most  a  violation  of 
a  legislative  provision  enacted  without  authority,  since 
neither  the  council  nor  emperor  might  erect  offices  in 
the  kingdom  of  Christ. 

His  classification  of  officers  in  a  church  perfectly 
agrees  with  those  of  his  day,  and  fairly  excludes  the 
possibility  of  the  existence  of  lay  presbyters :  "  What 
God  requires  from  a  bishop  is  one  thing,  that  from  a 
presbyter,  another;  and  that  from  a  deacon,  another; 
and  that  from  a  clerk,  another ;  and  that  from  a  lay- 
man, even  every  individual  whatsoever,  is  another.'"" 


mihi  aurum  de  sacello  invehere,  quam  tantum  sa^erdotium  perdere. 
Aurum  dedi  et  episcopatum  comparavi;  quos,  amem,  solidos,  si 
vivo,  receptum  me  illico  non  diffido;  Ordino  presbyteros,  consecro 
diaconos,  et  accipio  aurum.  Ecce  aurum,  quod  dedi,  in  meo  sa- 
cello recepi,  episcopatum  ig-itur  gratis  accepi."   Tom.  iv.  p.  181. 

m  "Aliud  est  enim  quod  ab  episcopo  requirit  Deus,  et  aliud 
quod  a  presbytero  et  aliud  quod  a  diacono,  et  aliud  quod  a  clerico, 
et  aliud  quod  a  laico,  vel  a  singulis  quibusque  hominibus."  Tom. 
iv.  179. 


SECTION   XVI. 

Epiphanius  a  weak  and  credulous  writer ;  intoxicated  with  clerical  power.  —His 
detraction  of  Aerius. — His  opinion  of  the  difference  between  bishop  and  pres- 
bytery ;  contrary  to  Jerom's. — His  notion,  that  different  primitive  churches 
had  different  Jcinds  of  officers,  without  foundation ,  and  contrary  to  evidence 
and  facts. — He  received  the  apostolical  constitutions,  but  shows  they  were 
doubted. — Eusebius  and  Jerom  say  nothing  of  them ;  and  they  contain  false 
history. — They  profess  to  have  existed  in  the  life-time  of  Peter,  and  yet  re- 
quire to  read  the  gospel  of  John,  which  was  written  after  Peter's  death  : 
and  give,  as  officers,  several  who  came  into  office  after  the  death  of  the  apos- 
tles. 

Epiphanius  was  born  in  Palestine,  about  the  year 
332,  became  metropolitan  of  Cyprus  in  366,  and  died 
in  402.  Though  acquainted  with  five  languages,11 
he  was  no  proficient  in  Attic  diction,  the  only  test  to 
which  he  is  now  subject.  His  credulity  might  have 
been  at  least  compatible  with  sincerity ;  had  not  his 
conditional  promise  of  a  miracle,  to  the  empress,  ren- 
dered even  this  problematical.  His  invasion  of  the 
canonical  rights  of  John  of  Constantinople,11  sprang 
from  his  seduction  by  Theophilus  of  Alexandria,  and 
both  from  the  inebriating  influence  of  ecclesiastical 
power,  disproportioned  to  his  mental  vigor.  To  prove 
heresies  supposititious,  which  is  the  chief  object  of  his 
writings,  catalogues  of  bishops  are  presented,  who  are 
assumed  to  have  had  the  same  authority,  and  to  have 
held  the  same  faith,  from  the  days  of  the  apostles.  It 
had  been  usual  to  argue  the  genuineness  of  the  gospel 
faith  from  the  identity  of  the  doctrines  retained  by  the 
church  throughout  the  world.  But,  howsoever  plausi- 
bly the  antiquity  of  doctrines  might  be  argued,  from 


a    TltyntyxooTX);.     Jerom. 

b  Socrat.  Hist.  lib.  vi.  c.  9—13. 


THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,    &C.  145 

the  agreement  of  those  churches,  whose  successive 
presidents,  rtposolulis,  had, long  before  the  days  of  Epipha- 
nius,  monopolized  the  title  of  bishops,  the  assumption 
nevertheless,  that  diocesan  episcopacy  had  existed 
from  the  days  of  the  apostles,  and  that  there  had  been 
a  sameness  of  power,  influence,  and  even  of  name, 
was  contrary  to  fact.  Episcopal  authority  he  identified 
with  the  regal  and  sacerdotal  offices  of  Christ,  and 
preposterously  founded  it  upon  the  promise  of  God, 
that  Christ's  throne  should  remain,  that  of  his  ki?igdom 
there  should  be  no  end,  and  that  he  should  sit  upon  the  throne 
of  David,  "  which  kingdom  he  transferred  unto,  and 
bestowed,  together  with  the  priesthood,  upon  his  ser- 
vants, that  is,  the  high-priests  of  the  church  univer- 
sal."0 

Speaking  of  Aerius,  who  has  already  fallen  under 
consideration,  he  says,'1  that  "  He  alleges,  to  the  de- 
ception of  himself  and  his  hearers,  that  the  apostle 
writes  to  presbyters  and  deacons,  and  not  to  bishops :" 
also,  that  to  a  bishop  the  apostle  says,  "  Neglect  not 
the  grace  that  is  in  you,  which  you  received  by  the 
hands  of  the  presbytery."  And  afterwards,  in  another 
place,  the  apostle  addresses  "  bishops  and  deacons," 
so  that  the  same  person  was  a  bishop  and  a  presbyter. 
And  being  ignorant  of  the  series  of  truth,  and  not  con- 
versant in  ancient  histories,  Aerius  knew  not  that 
whilst  the  proclamation  of  the  gospel  was  a  new  thing, 
the  holy  apostles  wrote  according  to  circumstances. 
Where,  indeed, e  there  were  bishops  already  constitu- 
ted, he  wrote  to  bishops  and  deacons  ;  for  the  apostles 
could  not  immediately  establish  every  thing  in  order. 
But  there  was  need  of  presbyters  and  deacons,  since 
by  these  two,  the  business  of  a  church  can  be  accom- 
plished. Where,  therefore,  no  one  was  found  worthy 
of  an  episcopate,  the  place  remained  without  a  bishop. 

c  To  /Satr/Aejsv  tou  AaCiJ'  f/.irual>ttrx.;  ic»/  ^u^itreLfAiio;  roi;  idLvrcv 
SbvXoii  etfAO.  TWcig^;»ga)  truvi-,,  tout  till  to/c  ag^/Egsum  t»c  xafioA/jujf 
<KKh>«rix<;.     Hoer.  29.   S.  4.  vide  Heb.  v.  6.  vii.  16,  25.  contra. 

<l    Vide  Sect.  xiii. 

c  Stillingfleet  reads  fx»  for  m«v. 

o 


14G  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

But  where  there  was  necessity,  and  there  were  those 
who  were  worthy  of  the  office  of  bishop,  bishops  were 
appointed,  and  the  numbers  being  few,  and  none  be- 
ing found  among  them  to  be  constituted  presbyters, 
they  were  satisfied,  in  such  places,  with  a  bishop  only. 
But  without  a  deacon  there  could  not  be  a  bishop."* 

The  first  charge  against  Aerius  was,  that  he  taught 
that  the  apostle,  in  the  third  chapter  of  his  first  epistle 
to  Timothy,  in  fact  enumerates  the  qualifications,  not 
of  bishops  of  the  fourth  century,  but  of  primitive  pres- 
byters and  deacons.  To  which  Epiphanius,  in  sub- 
stance, answers,  that  bishops  and  deacons,  without 
presbyters,  were  ordained  in  some  churches  by  reason 
of  paucity  of  numbers.  But  if  so,  a  single  pastor  and 
his  deacons  was  one  of  the  earliest  conditions  of  the 
church,  which  is  not  strictly  correct,  as  we  have 
seen. 

The  second  was,  that  to  prove  the  offices  one,  he 
represented  Timothy  (1  Tim.  iv.  14)  as  ordained  a 
bishop  by  the  hands  of  a  presbytery.  To  this  the 
metropolitan  answers,  that  Timothy  was  not  to  reprove 
an  elder,  nor  hastily  to  receive  an  accusation  against  such; 
which  caution  implied,  that  he  had  an  authority  supe- 
rior to  that  of  presbyters,  to  whom  no  such  directions 
were  given.  The  truth  was,  that  Timothy,  ordained 
by  a  presbytery,  was  constituted  by  Paul  an  evange- 
list, an  extraordinary  office,  by  virtue  of  which,  like 
an  apostle,  he  planted  churches,  and  ordained  presby- 
ters or  bishops,  their  ordination  being  the  same.  It 
has  been  shown,  that  as  the  Ephori  had  a  7<e,os6tos,  or 
president,  who  held  the  same  office  with  his  brethren, 
so  in  the  presbytery  of  each  church  there  was  a  presi- 
dent, ft^oEotuf,  consequently,  as  it  was  an  inflexible  rule 


f  Qi^a  it  a;  ezt/rov  n,\zv>iv—->cx.t  ovz  ciJty  o  tx?  a>cc\cv6ia.v  t«c 
a\n6iixc  ttyvoHtrxt,  x.a.1  leloeitt.lt  jBx.Qvlx]mc  jun  ivrv^uv,  on  jiou  ottcc 
tow  tcHguy/ufroc,  55-goc  tu.  wTowi!TT07Tst  £}ga^>ev  o  xyiot  airce-Tchcs . 
Ottov  fxti  no-civ  eritrHOTGi  h/m.  KctT&?6ivTt! ,  s^gat^ev  t7Tl(xc7rci  x.a.1 
cf/ajcovo/c  ov  y<t£  7ra.vT<t  tvQvc  xiuvHdncay  at  at.7rco-lo\ol  x.sLTao-T>iffsti 
^gsc^Wefjaiv  yct£  tytvtlo  £8lMj  **<  (f/atxoyav,  Si*,  yap  toy  cfuo  rcvreit 
tx  tKx.\>i<nz<rliK.*  fvva.no  Trxn^cuo-^aLi,  &C.      Hoer.  75.   S.  5. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  147 

that  but  one  church  should  be  allowed  in  one  city  at  a 
time,  there  could,  of  necessity,  exist  but  one  primus 
among  the  presbyters,  however  multiplied.  This 
officer  very  naturally,  therefore,  in  the  second  century 
and  later,  as  converts  multiplied,  became  more  influen- 
tial, claimed  higher  authority,  and  monopolized  the 
name  of  the  bishop;  a  circumstance  on  which  the 
policy  of  Constantine  seized,  and,  accordingly,  by  can- 
ons of  the  council  of  Nice,  availing  himself  of  an  im- 
aginary power  in  the  church,  he  erected  a  hierarchy, 
which  exists  to  this  day." 

The  third  charge  against  Aerius  was,  that  he  said 
Paul  considered  (Titus  i.  5 — 7)  the  same  persons 
bishops  and  presbyters,  calling  them  indifferently  by 
either  name.  To  this  he  found  no  answer,  except  the 
assertion,  that  the  order  of  bishops  is  to  produce,  by 
ordination,  fathers  in  the  church,  or  presbyters  to 
produce  sons  by  the  washing  of  regeneration ;  which 
is  a  mere  begging  of  the  question,  and  opposed  by  the 
fact  of  the  ordination  of  Timothy  himself  by  a  presby- 
tery. Modern  ingenuity  has  sometimes  allowed  the 
name  bishop,  in  its  appellative  sense,  to  the  presbyters 
of  Titus ;  but,  as  a  name  of  office,  to  the  ordainer. 
And  this  would  be  allowable,  if  a  distinction  of  such 
offices  could  be  shown  by  the  Scriptures,  or  in  the 
apostolic  age ;  but  the  ruling  elder  was  no  more  than 
a  presbyter ;  and  to  account  him  less,  was  an  absur- 
dity of  more  modern  invention. 

The  argument  just  mentioned  by  Epiphanius,  in 
support  of  an  inequality  between  the  bishop  and  pres- 
byter, "  that  one  is  an  order  generative  of  fathers,  for 
it  begets  fathers  in  the  church ;  and  that  the  other, 
unable  to  produce  fathers,  generates  children  in  the 
church,  by  the  washing  of  regeneration,"^  has  neither 
foundation  in  the  Scriptures,  nor  in  the  history  of  the 
earliest  ages  of  Christianity ;  for  we  have  seen  how 


5  H  /Aty  y*£  \<rri  wstTigwv  ynyxrix.ii  tol^k,  sraTijac  >ag  ytrva.  t» 
txKKturia,  H/s  Turtle  {*■*  fuya/Atyit  ytyyay,  Sia.  tm;  tow  Aet/Tga  ira.- 
Kiyywt<ri*c  Tixr*  ynri  t»  ikxxjktkj.     Hcer.  75}  84. 


148  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

episcopacy  grew  out  of  the  "  ruling  elder."  But  in 
his  day,  though  the  bishop  had  all  the  powers  of  the 
presbyter,  the  presbyter  was  not  allowed  to  do  all  that 
the  bishop  might ;  being  prohibited  by  the  canons  of 
councils,  which  were  the  supreme  laws  of  the  empire. 
Accordingly,  Jerom,  his  more  learned  cotempoiary, 
commenting  on  the  third  chapter  of  Zephaniah,  attri- 
butes to  presbyters  their  original  right  of  ordination : 
"  Priests,  who  baptize  and  administer  the  eucharist, 
anoint  with  oil,  impose  hands,  instruct  catechumens, 
constitute  Levites  and  other  priests,  have  less  reason 
to  take  offence  at  us  explaining  these  things,  or  at  the 
prophets  foretelling  them,  than  to  ask  of  the  Lord  for- 
giveness.'"1 If  it  be  objected  that  Jerom  elsewhere 
said,  "  What  does  a  bishop,  ordination  excepted,  that 
a  presbyter  may  not  do  ?"'  the  answer  is  obvious : 
Jerom,  knowing  that  episcopal  ordination  was  an  ag- 
gression canonically  adopted,  confirmed  by  successive 
councils,  and  established  by  imperial  authority,  here 
speaks  of  ordination  as  it  then  was,  and  by  no  means 
of  its  original  institution,  or  the  mode  of  its  primitive 
administration.  He  could  not  otherwise  have  affirmed, 
as  he  has  done,  that  bishops  are  above  presbyters  rather 
by  custom,  than  by  the  truth  of  a  divine  disposal;  "  magis 
consuetudine  quam  dispositionis  Dominica?  veritate 
presbyteris,  esse  majores."  He  also  affirmed,  an  apos- 
tle had  plainly  taught,  that  presbyters  and  bis/;ops  zvere 
the  same,  "  eosdem  esse  presbyteros  quos  et  episcopos;" 
but  "  that  afterwards  it  obtained  that  one  was  chosen, 
who  might  preside  over  the  rest,  to  prevent  divi- 
sion, lest  each  one,  collecting  to  himself,  might  rend 
the  church  of  Christ.'*    That  there  was  but  one  ordi- 


h  Sacerdotes  qui  dant  baptismum  et  ad  eucbaristiam  Domini 
imprecantur  adventum,  faciunt  ok-um  cbrismatis,  raanua  imponunt, 
catechumenos  emdiunt,  Levitas.  et  alios  eoivstituunt  sacerdotes, 
non  tarn  indigncntur  nobis  bxc  exponentibus  et  prophetis  vaticin- 
antibus,  quam  Dominum  deprecentur.     Tom.  v.  p.  218. 

i  "Quidenim  f'acit  excepta  ordinatione,  episcopus,  quod  pres- 
byter non  faciat."     Tom.  ii.  p.  624. 

k  "Quod  autemposAea  unus  elcctus  est  qui  cxteris  preponere- 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  149 

nation  for  the  presbyter  and  bishop  until  the  Cyprianic 
age,  has  been  made  sufficiently  clear  in  the  former 
sections ;  but  to  establish  that  Jerom  excepted  ordi- 
nations from  the  powers  of  presbyters,  merely  with  re- 
gard to  the  laws  and  practice  of  his  day,  and  not  as 
either  original  or  rightful,  it  is  only  necessary  further 
to  observe,  that  in  the  same  letter  he  has  shown,  that 
"  at  Alexandria,  from  the  evangelist  Mark,  even  to  the 
bishop  Heraclius  and  Dionysius  (A.  D.246)  the  presby- 
ters called  him  bishop,  who  was  one  chosen  from  them- 
selves, and  placed  in  a  higher  grade,  as  an  army  makes 
a  general,  or  deacons  choose  from  themselves  one, 
whom  they  know  to  be  diligent,  and  call  him  an  arch- 
deacon."1 A  secondary  ordination  had  not  then  ob- 
tained, but  the  elders  selected  one  of  their  number,  and 
denominating  him  bishop,  they  placed  him  in  the  chair, 
which  Jerom  describes  by  the  suitable  terms,  in  gradu 
excelsiorl  collocare:  in  consequence  of  which,  he  acted 
as  bishop,  or  rather  as  arch-bishop.  This  act  of  the 
presbyters  was  without  apostolical  warrant,  either  in 
precept  or  example ;  and  certainly  grew  out  of  the 
appointment  of  a  chairman,  or  Tt^osat^,  which  was  a 
merely  optional  appointment,  by  presbyters,  of  one  of 
their  number  to  a  necessary  duty.  The  comparison 
of  a  general,  discovers  the  manner  of  the  election  ;  that 
of  the  arch-deacon,  excludes  the  idea  of  diversity  in 
office ;  and  as  he  was  still  a  deacon,  the  bishop  was 
still  a  presbyter. 

tur,  in  schismatis  remedinm  factum  est;  ne  unusquisque  ad  se  tra- 
hens  Christi  ecclesiam  rumperet."     Epist.  ad  Evagrium. 

1  Nam  et  Alexandria  a  Marco  evangelista  usque  ad  Heraclum  et 
Dionysiura  episcopos,  presbyteri  semper  unum  ex  se  electum  in 
excelsiori  gradu  collocatum  episcopum  nominabant;  quomodo  si 
exercitus  imperatorem  faciat,  aut  diaconi  eligant  de  se  quem  in- 
dustrium  noverint  et  archi-diaconum  vocent."     Ibid. 

Also,  Hilary  the  deacon,  says,  "  Sed  quia  coeperunt  sequentes 
presbyteri  indigni  inveniri  ad  primatus  tenendos  immutata  est  ratio, 
prospiciente  concilio,  ut  nonordo,  sedmeritum  crearet  episcopum. 
Sect.  xii.  And  Augustin  speaks  of  the  superiority  of  the  bishop  as 
that  which  jam  ecclesise  usus  oblinuit,  &c.  Isodore  of  Spain  says, 
it  wa9  to  prevent  schisms  by  authority.  It  was,  therefore,  human, 
and  by  no  means  primitive. 

o2 


150  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

The  method  adopted  by  Epiphanius  to  support,  as 
original,  an  imaginary  diversity  in  office,  between 
bishops  and  presbyters,  by  supposing  the  modes  of 
constituting  the  first  churches  to  have  been  various ; 
that,  in  some  churches,  there  were  presbyters  and 
deacons,  in  others  bishops  and  deacons,  was  not 
founded  in  fact ;  for  the  same  identical  persons  were 
denominated  presbyters  and  bishops :  the  commission 
was  one,  conferred  by  the  same  authority,  in  the  same 
manner,  and  for  the  same  ends. 

This  passage  has  been  brought  to  prove,  that  it  was 
believed,  in  the  days  of  Epiphanius,  that  episcopal  su- 
periority over  presbyters  was  established  by  the  apos- 
tles. The  imbecile  arch-bishop  of  Cyprus,  and  his  co- 
temporary,  arch-bishop  of  Milan,  whose  piety  was 
much  greater  than  his  knowledge,  may  have  thus 
quieted  their  consciences,  but  the  episcopal  power  was 
then  well  known  to  have  been  founded  in  aggression, 
and  established  by  canons  of  councils  and  edicts  of 
emperors.  Yet  in  no  instance  were  presbyters  re- 
duced to  the  condition  of  laymen. 

The  representation  already  given7"  of  the  churches 
in  Alexandria,  while  under  their  respective  presbyters, 
at  the  head  of  whom  was  the  president  of  the  original 
church,  is  fully  confirmed  by  Epiphanius.  "  They 
say  that  he,  (Arius,)  a  Lybian  by  descent,  having  be- 
come a  presbyter  in  Alexandria,  presided,  H^oiolalo, 
over  a  church  called  Baucalis.  P'or  as  many  churches 
as  are  of  the  Catholic  church  at  Alexandria,  are  un- 
der one  arch-bishop;  and  over  these,  individually, 
presbyters  are  placed  to  administer  to  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal exigences  of  the  neighboring  inhabitants."" 

This  writer  is  deemed  the  principal  witness  in  sup- 
port of  the  eight  books,  denominated  I  he  Apostolical 


>-i   Sect.  xiii. 

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3  *£  ix.x\n<ri-j.l  t»c  xa&'.A.'xJic  ;:xx\j;5-;=?c  «'.'  AM^**Jg«<9  tTi  fy;t  aPXli~ 
WiS-JtSTTOK  iWal,K*i  ifXT*   tSfiy  T«TJi{  iTrtltlit^  fJtv.tt   ml  7rct7j2u']tict 

Jia.r&T  tKx.k»rixsliit.x.t  ^csjac  troev  eiKtrcfftf.     Hcer.  69.   S.  1. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  151 

Constitutions.  He  observes  :  "  The  Audians  bring  as 
proofs  the  Constitution  of  the  Apostles,  being  indeed 
with  many  not  accredited,  nevertheless  not  to  be  re- 
jected; for  the  whole  canonical  order  is  comprehend- 
ed in  it,  and  nothing  hostile  to  the  gospel,  nor  to  the 
administration,  canon,  or  faith  of  the  church."0  Af- 
terwards he  says,  "  The  church  observes  the  feast  of 
the  passover,  appointed  even  from  the  apostles,  in  the 
Stato-fa,  constitution,  fyc."p  "  And  if  it  becomes  us  to 
recite  that  of  the  Stcwalis,  constitution  of  the  ap6stles, 
how,  &C.'"1  He  also  says :  "  With  respect  to  the 
beard,  the  divine  word  and  doctrine  direct  in  the  con- 
stitutions (sv  i-atj  biata&at,)  of  the  apostles,  not  to  cor- 
rupt it,"  &c.r  That  there  existed  a  book  in  the  days 
of  Epiphanius,  known  by  the  name  that  has  been  men- 
tioned, is  a  fair  inference  from  his  expressions.  The 
silence  of  Eusebius,  and  of  Jerom,  who  was  the  friend 
of  Epiphanius,  avails  nothing  against  this  positive 
testimony ;  but  when  compared  with  the  suspicions, 
which  Epiphanius  more  than  once  has  expressed,  the 
inference  is  just,  that  they  allowed  them  not  to  be  gen- 
uine. The  circumstance,  also,  that  he  never  mentions 
them  in  the  catalogues  of  the  sacred  writings,  evinces 
that  he  did  not  believe  them  to  have  been  written  by 
the  apostles,  whose  inspiration  extended  to  all  they 
said  and  wrote,  relative  to  the  cause  of  Christ. 

They  have  been  mentioned  in  no  passage  in  the 
sacred  Scriptures,  by  none  of  the  fathers,  councils,  or 
ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  first  century  ;s  although 
the  things  they  contain  must  have  been  highly  impor- 


0  E«  tcutg  St  CI  avrot  AvSlnvot  TdLpa.qtfr.iio-l<r»v  etTTOO-TcXoeV  ftcfletPltj 
CV0-2.V  [ASV  TOl;  TTOKKCIt  iV  a./U.q>lkiX.1(t,  ctkka.  CVX.  O-SoKlfAOV,  ttclo-o.  yap  tt 
*UT»  X.HV0VIKH  TU&I;    ZfyKpipiTZty   X.-JLI   Cl/SlV  7TS.psL  Xi%X.p*.yjUtVOV   T»C  7TIT- 

?«»;,  otcTs  T»f  tx.x.\ti<r!a.</\lKii;  SiOKHtnce;,  x.'M  xzvcvoc,  x.*l  7rta-hai;.— 
Hoer.  70.   S.  10. 

P  Ibid.  S.  12.  q  Hccr.  75.  S.  6. 

r    Hcer.  80.   S.  7. 

s  Vide  Sec.  vii.  ante,  concerning  "  The  Apostolical  Tradition," 
referred  to  Hippolytus,  which  identifies  itself  with  the  Rth  book  of 
the  Constitutions. 


152  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,  &C. 

tant  on  different  occasions,  particularly  to  Origen, 
Tertullian,  and  Cyprian.  In  the  Constitutions1  there 
is  a  direction  to  read  the  gospel  of  John,  but  that  gos- 
pel was  not  written  till  after  the  deaths  of  Peter  and 
Paul,  and  other  apostles,  in  whose  time  and  presence 
these  Constitutions  claim  to  have  been  written.  Simon 
Magus  is  asserted  in  the  Constitutions,"  to  have  been 
baptized  by  Philip  the  apostle,  but  the  history  of  the 
Acts  shows  that  it  wTas  by  Philip  the  deacon  or  evan^ 
gelist. 

In  the  Constitutions/  the  apostle  Peter  is  made  to 
speak  of  Clement,  as  bishop  and  citizen  of  Rome,  and 
also  of  the  heretic  Basilides,  and  others.  But  neither 
was  Clement,  bishop  of  Rome,  nor  Basilides  known  as 
a  heretic  in  the  life-time  of  Peter. 

They  containw  many  names  of  bishops  ordained  by 
Peter,  Paul,  Mark,  and  others,  several  of  whom  must 
have  come  into  office  after  the  days  of  the  apostles. 

If  those  books  in  the  Greek  language,  which  are 
now  called  "  The  Apostolical  Constitutions,  by  Cle- 
ment," Aiafoyat  -tav  aytcov  Artosto'Kcov  8ia  KSajfUvJos,  be   the 

same  which  Epiphanius  approved,  and  the  Trullian 
council  afterwards  rejected,  they  are  an  argument  of 
his  weakness  and  prejudices ;  if  they  are  different, 
they  merit  no  regard,  and,  under  either  aspect,  they 
become  a  miserable  specimen  of  human  depravity. 


1  Lib.  vi.  c.  7.  u  Lib.  vi.  c.  7. 

*    Lib.vi.  c.8.  w  Lib.  vii.  c.  58. 


SECTION    XVII. 


Dionysius,  the  Areopagile,  was  not  the  writer  of  the  volumes,  which  hear  his 
name;  both  things  and  terms  are  freely  used  in  them,  which  existed  not  till 
centuries  afterwards.  They  may  have  been  written  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  cen- 
tury. That  the  writer  spoke  falsely  with  respect  to  his  age  and  lime  is  cer- 
tain; but  wrote  with  more  than  ordinary  talent.  By  whut  writers  presliyters 
were  first  accounted  priests.  The  mode  of  ordination  of  a  bishop  in  them 
differs  from  that  in  the  apostolical  constitutions. — John  Chrysostom,  his  cha- 
racter. Correct  as  to  the  origin  of  episcopacy,  but  mistakes  some  Scriptures. 
— Isidore  of  Pelusium,  a  monk  and  layman;  his  letters  laconic  and  severe. 
Uses  s;r/!7Jcowaj  and  7rp$iTluic  in  the  same  sense. 

Dionysius,  the  Areopagite,  who  heard  Paul  at 
Athens,11  has  been  deemed  by  Nicephorus,  Gregory  the 
great,  Baronius,  and  many  others,  the  writer  of  the 
books  which  bear  his  name.  According  to  these,  he 
received  a  liberal  education,  and  went  into  Egypt  a 
little  before  the  death  of  Christ,  where  he  witnessed 
that  eclipse  of  the  sun  which  happened  at  the  cruci- 
fixion, when  the  moon  was  full.  The  writer  affirms, 
he  was  then  in  his  twenty-fifth  year ;  he  nevertheless 
appears  to  have  survived  Ignatius  and  Trajan.  The 
genuineness  of  these  writings,  which  have  received 
the  scholia  of  Maximus,  and  paraphrase  of  Pachyme- 
ras,  in  the  Greek;  and  the  annotations  of  Corderius  in 
Latin,  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  through  the  last 
twelve  centuries.  The  reasons  furnished  by  Baronius, 
wherefore  they  were  not  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and 
Jerom,  are  plausible ;  and  his  opinion,  that  the  Cle- 
ment named  in  them  was  not  Alexandrinus,  is  probable. 
But  his  answer  to  the  objection  of  Theodorus,  pre- 
served by  Photius,  that  they  exhibit  an  account  of 

a  Acts  xvii.  34. 


154  THE     PRIMITIVE    G0VERNME\T 

those  traditions  which  grew  up  in  the  church,  by  de- 
grees and  at  distant  periods,  is  unsatisfactory.  Nei- 
ther is  it  conceivable  that  these  books,  which  so  plain- 
ly assert  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  should  never  have 
been  cited  in  the  disputes  with  the  Arians,  nor  that 
Chrysostom,  Ambrose,  and  Augustine,  who  mentioned 
the  Dionysius  of  Athens,  should  have  concealed,  if  ac- 
quainted with,  his  writings. 

These  wTorks  are  probably  those  of  a  Platonistic 
Christian,  mystically  but  argumentatively  written,  in 
good  style,  and  with  a  free  use  of  terms  introduced  by 
the  disputants  of  the  fourth  century.  Some  have 
imagined  that  Dionysius,  not  the  Areopagite  convert- 
ed by  Paul,  but  the  patron  of  the  Franks,  who  were 
different  men,  of  different  periods,  was  the  author  of 
these  works. 

About  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  century  we 
may  with  probability  place  them  ;b  and  supposing 
them  the  works  of  an  anonymous  and  disingenuous 
writer,  yet  was  he  a  man  of  more  than  ordinary  ta- 
lents and  information ;  they  are  entitled  to  notice  there- 
fore, subject  to  these  qualifications. 

Not  a  solitary  instance  has  been  observed,  rejecting 
the  captions,  wherein  this  writer  uses  the  words 
ertitixortos,  7ie,taPvtte,os,  8io.xovo$,  bishop,  presbyter,  or  deacon; 
but  instead  of  them,  icpag^s  new  and  uitovgyos,  govern- 
or of  priests,  priest  and  minister;  ue,ae.xvi  is  a  refinement 
upon  ap^fgtuj  not  found  in  the  New  Testament:  uptvs 
never  there  occurs  for  an  officer  under  the  gospel,  nor 
xsitovgyos  for  the  deacon. 

The  term  priest  does  rarely,  if  in  any  instance,  ap- 
pear for  an  officer  in  the  church  of  Christ,  in  Clemens 
Rom.,  Justin  Martyr,  Clemens  Alexandr.,  Origen, 
Gregory  Thaum.,  Lactantius,  or  in  either  of  the  Hila- 
rys. Irenasus  infers  from  Levi's  having  no  inheritance 
but  the  priesthood,  that  the   apostles,  forsaking  the 


b  Blondel  and  Lardner  places  them  at  A.  D.  490.  Pearson,  330. 
S.  Basnage  and  Daille,  520.  Cave,  360.  And  others  at  different 
intermediate  periods. 


OP    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  155 

fields,  became  the  priests  of  God.  Tertullian  argues, 
that  because  Christ,  is  a  high  priest,  those  who  are  bap- 
tized into  Christ,  having  put  on  Christ,  are,  according 
to  the  apocalypse,  priests  to  God  the  Father.  But  nei- 
ther of  these  writers  has  usually  adopted  the  word 
priest  f6r  presbyter  in  his  writings.  Minutius  Felix 
observes,  that  Christians  had  neither  temples  nor  altars 
except  their  hearts,  nor  images,  nor  purple,  nor  digni- 
ties. Cyprian  and  Ambrose  have  used  the  terms  priest 
and  priesthood  for  the  preaching  office  in  the  gospel, 
but  do  not  ordinarily  make  the  substitution. 

The  principal  and  distinguishing  character  of  the 
ordination  of  a  bishop,  nea^xn^  at  the  time  of  the  writ- 
ing of  these  books,  appears  to  have  been,  "  the  impo- 
sition of  the  Scriptures  upon  his  head,  which  neither  of 
the  lower  orders  received."0  But  it  was  at  this  pe- 
riod accompanied  by  laying  on  of  hands,  which  nei- 
ther appears  in  the  constitutions,  nor  in  the  Traditions 
of  Hippolytus.d  The  present  form  of  the  ordination 
of  bishops  fell  into  practice  at  some  later  period,  by 
the  mere  omission  of  that  which  was  the  earliest  but 
unauthorized  ceremony,  of  holding  the  Scriptures 
over  the  head  of  a  presbyter,  when  appointed  to  pre- 
side. 

If  imposition  of  hands  is  thought  in  our  day  to  com- 
municate either  gifts  or  graces,- experience  will  prove 
the  reverse.  And  in  the  ordination  of  the  tf^a^j,  it 
was  not  originally  a  constituent.  Ordination,  even 
when  rightful,  confers  neither  knowledge  nor  purity ; 
and  though  at  first  followed  by  extraordinary  gifts,  it 
was  no  doubt  intended  as  an  exclusion  of  persons  un- 
qualified from  the  offices  of  presbyter  and  deacon. 
Designations  to  presidency  among  presbyters  were 
variously  effected  in  different  places.  The  duties  were 
long  merely  parochial,  even  after  the  name  of  bishop 


«  E£*/g«T*.  cTe  hjli  fKX$irz  tok  l£§ag^*/c  fit*  »  to>»  \oyim  nri  x.i<px\w; 
triBtirte  ivx.  i^ovrcev  tivto  ru>r  (nquiA.tvaty  TsfyjuxraDi.   Vol.  i.  p.  o64. 
J  Vide  p.  64  ante. 


156  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

had  been  monopolized.  We  have  already  seen,  that 
instead  of  a  jus  divinum,  diocesan  bishops,  as  such,  had 
no  existence  in  the  apostles'  days :  and  the  tardy  ad- 
vancement towards  a  secondary  ordination  shows  that 
they  knew  that  their  legitimate  authority  was  only 
presbyterial,  whilst  their  episcopal  superiority,  being 
founded  on  human  appointment,  was  continued  by  cus- 
tom and  supported  by  policy.  Such  is  the  history  of 
the  tt£os<stu{,  or  ruling  elder. 

It  has  been  often  affirmed  in  our  own  day,  that 
bishops  are  successors  to  the  apostolic  office.  But  the 
writer  of  these  books  thought  otherwise,  and  probably 
wrote  the  sentiments  which  prevailed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  fifth  century.  He  represents  dea- 
cons as  directed  "by  priests,  priests,  by  archbishops, 
archbishops  by  the  apostles  and  the  successors  of  the 
apostles."6 

Neither  in  the  Celestial  nor  Ecclesiastical  Hierarchy, 
nor  in  any  other  of  the  writings  ascribed  to  Dionysius, 
the  Areopagite,  has  there  been  found  a  word,  a  fact, 
or  even  a  circumstance,  which  so  much  as  excited  the 
idea  of  a  lay  presbyter,  or  ruling  elder,  in  the  modern 
meaning  of  those  terms. 

John  of  Constantinople  was  born  at  Antioch,  of 
Christian  parents,  but  lost  his  father  in  childhood. 
His  first  object  was  jurisprudence,  which  he  exchang- 
ed for  the  study  of  the  Scriptures.  Becoming  a  read- 
er, he  discharged  the  duties  with  such  acceptance  that 
he  could  escape  episcopal  ordination  only  by  conceal- 
ment. He  retired  a  few  years,  afterwards  was  or- 
dained deacon,  then  presbyter.  His  eloquence,  upon 
the  death  of  Nectarius,  promoted  him  to  the  see  of 
Constantinople,  in  398.  He  was  austere,  choleric,  dis- 
tant, arbitrary,  and  sometimes  imprudent,  yet  pious. 
f  He  died,  in  unjust  banishment,  in  407,  at  the  age  of 

e  Aiircv^ycl,  <T«   t'.utc/c    ci  tf^iis,   ngaf^Ai  cf«   tc/c  it^twi,   St  Tctg 
lig*e>XdLlt  Clt  "■'Tcs'rcKei,  x.*t  ci  t»»  a7rccrTo>.aiv  imSo^ci.  Vol.  ii.  p.  113. 
f  Vide  Socrat.  Scholast.Hb.  vi.  c.  2—19. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  157 

GO.  The  name  Chrysostom  was  conferred  at  a  later 
period. e 

In  his  homily  on  Ephes.  iv.  he  places  apostles  first, 
prophets  second,  evangelists  third;  then  follow  pas- 
tors and  teachers.  These  last  he  supposed  to  have 
been  intrusted,  some  with  a  whole  nation,  and  others 
to  have  been  inferior.  This  archbishop  of  Constanti- 
nople appears  to  have  made  no  claim  to  apostolical 
succession.  Yet  by  virtue  of  canons  of  councils,  he 
exercised  the  ecclesiastical  power  proportioned  to  the 
grade  of  his  metropolis. 

Having  recited  1  Tim.  iii.  3 — 10,  he  observes: 
"Having  spoken  of  bishops  and  characterized  them, 
saying  both  what  they  should  possess,  and  from  what 
they  should  abstain,  and  omitting  the  order  of  presby- 
ters, Paul  has  passed  over  to  the  deacons.  But  why 
is  this?  Because  there  is  not  much  difference.  For 
these  also  in  like  manner  have  been  set  over  the  teach- 
ing and  government  of  the  church,  and  what  things  he 
has  said  concerning  bishops,  the  same  also  he  intended 
for  presbyters ;  for  they  have  gained  the  ascendancy 
over  them  only  in  respect  of  ordaining,  and  of  this 
thing  also  they  appear  to  have  robbed  the  presby- 
ters."h  The  condition  of  the  church  could  have  then 
been  better  known  to  no  one  than  to  this  primate;  yet 
when  discoursing  on  the  Scriptures,  he  expressly  al- 
lows government  and  doctrine  to  have  been  given 
equally  and  by  the  same  means  to  presbyters  and  to 
bishops;  that  the  latter  had  gained  the  ascendancy 
only  in  ordination,  which  they  had  injuriously  taken 
from  the  presbyters;  for  such  is  the  force  of  nxsovixttw, 
followed  by  an  accusative. 

go    fc^uTou;    tmv   yAoort-zv  kui    to    o-<ro[A.ct    Jawvxc    o    K&>vo"Tstl'T<- 

VGUWOXS&K   iTTlO-X.iTT'Ji;.       PllOt'lUS,  fol.    890. 

*  Tl  JWgts;  oti  ov  ?rc,Kv  m  juio-cvy  km  y^  km  ttUTOl  3i£a.<r- 
nx.At&v  tltriv  a.vSiSityu.iVQt  x.at  tt^ottao-i^v   th;  *KK\H(rtM>  km  a  Trigt 

Jir/S-JiOfl'OJV       U7TI,      T-JLVTCL    KM      TTipl      71 QIT @V T 'S£&JV      agjUOTTSi.     THV    y<*-Z 

XiipiTcvtxv  fjisvitv  eturcey  Ma.$i,2>iK4.Ti,  km  toi/to  f*.ovot  Sokovfi 
vrhioviKhiv  <tou;  Trfta-^urifov;.     Vol.  ix.  p.  1574s, 

P 


158  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

He  appears  to  have  rightly  conceived  of  the  iden- 
tity of  the  episcopal  and  presbyterial  commission  in 
their  origin.  Yet  because  by  the  canons  of  councils, 
which  were  the  supreme  law  of  the  empire,  an  eccle- 
siastical authority  had  been  erected  in  every  city  pro- 
portional in  dignity  and  influence  to  the  magnitude  of 
the  city,  and  the  degree  of  civil  power  conferred  upon 
it,  this  writer  discerned  that  the  cautious  exercise  of 
the  power  of  ordination  was  a  matter  of  the  highest 
importance.  For  having  spoken  of  a  solemn  charge 
given  to  Timothy,  he  observes,  "After  saying  this, 
(Paul)  introduced  that  which  is  above  all  things  vital, 
and  conduces  to  the  preservation  of  the  church,  I  mean 
ordination,  and  says,  'Lay  hands  suddenly  on  no 
man.'"1 

It  is  obvious  that  bishops  differed  only  in  the  power 
of  ordination  from  presbyters,  and  had  gained  this  af- 
ter the  first  times,  yet  he  has  expressed  a  sentiment  on 
Phil.  i.  1.  somewhat  different.  If  presbyters  were  in 
the  days  of  Chrysostom  equally  as  the  bishops  com- 
missioned to  preach  and  govern,  they  were  not  lay 
presbyters. 

Upon  1  Tim.  v.  17.  Chrysostom  plainly  shows  that 
the  presbyters  who  ruled  well  were  the  same  species . 
of  officers  with  those  who  laboured  in  word  and  doctrine, 
and  observes,  "That  it  conduces  greatly  to  the  edifica- 
tion of  the  church,  that  the  rt^oscstutii,  ruling  presby- 
ters, should  be  apt  to  teach." k  The  "double  honour" 
he  understood  to  mean  not  merely  respect,  but  the  pro- 
vision necessary  to  him  who  presides.1  He  also  thought 
the  portion  wTas  to  be  double,  either  to  enable  him  to 


>  E/T*  TCvlo  ItTTOSi  0  TTClvlooV  fJlX.\l!TTSt.  K'MgltoluloV  »v  irrnyxyi, 
Kit    0    jUAhlt/la.      (TUVi^it      TJIV     iKKKHSULV    TO      T&V     ^lipOTCVtaV .  HOIIl. 

xvi.  p.   1611. 

!*■  TI g 0 ?  iWhtHTlCtt;  ClIt'JofAHV  KAl  7T0KV  (TUvlthtl  TO  J'tSctK'TlKCUC  tlVCU 
TOt/t    ^^OSCTOITSC-    p.     1605. 

1  Ttjuxv  evTstufij  twv  (iipi.7r£i2v  \iytl  tuv  t&iv  avxyxzicev  y^opHytstr. 
Ibid.  This  comparison  of  the  TrgiiTTms  to  him  that  leads  in  the 
choir,  fitly  intimates  the  parity  of  office. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  159 

supply  widows  and  deacons,  or  because  he  presided 
well. 

He  understood  the  grace  of  God  which  was  in  Tim- 
othy by  the  imposition  of  his  hands,  (2  Tim.  i.  6,)  not 
to  be  his  office  to  rule  and  preach,  but  the  influence  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  The  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the 
presbyters,  he  deems  the  giving  of  the  commission, 
but  strangely  and  gratuitously  affirms  that  Paul  "  there 
speaks  not  of  presbyters,  but  of  bishops)  That  there 
were  no  diocesan  bishops,  and  that  the  same  officers 
were  indifferently  called  presbyters  and  bishops  at  that 
period,  are  certain.  Yet  this  evasion  was  not  worse 
than  making  7t^saj.3vte^ov,  presbytery,  an  office  which 
Calvin  favored,  with  some  of  the  Latin  fathers.  The 
same  arbitrary  interpretation  of  elders,  Tt^is^vtc^ovi,  he 
adopted  on  Titus  i.  5,  "  he  here  means  bishops""1  Jerom's 
views  were  contrary,  and  they  are  established  by  evi- 
dence. 

Referring  to  the  passages  in  the  letters  to  Timothy 
and  Titus,  he  assigns  his  reason  for  such  interpreta- 
tion in  his  first  homily  on  the  epistle  to  the  Philippians. 
"  To  the  co-bishops  and  deacons,  what  is  this  1  Were 
there  many  bishops  in  one  city  1  By  no  means ;  but 
he  thus  denominates  the  presbyters,  for  they  had  hith- 
erto held  those  names  in  common ;  the  bishop  was 
also  called  a  deacon,"  or  minister."  He  afterwards 
justifies  such  commutation  of  names  of  office  in  an- 
cient times,  by  the  custom,  in  his  own  day,  of  bishops 
writing  to  their  "  co-presbyters"  and  "  deacons,"  and 
supposes  that  in  former  times  each  was,  notwithstand- 
ing, distinguished  by  his  proper  official  title.  But  how 
destitute  of  proof  this  assumption  was,  we  have  al- 
ready abundantly  seen.  Also,  he  acknowledges  there 
had  not  been  either  deacons  or  presbyters  prior  to  the 

'  Ou  vegt  7rgtT(ivlsga>v  <p»o~i  evlxvQci  axxa.  Tngi  i7rificoia'a>v.      1  Tim« 
ir.  14. 
m  Tot/c  nrioiccrrov;  iVTcLvftct  <*»io-i.     In  loc. 

n     'SvVilTllTKOTrOlt  x.4.1  SlAKOVOl;  T/  TOvlo   ;    y.~l4.t;    TTOXiCHi    7ro?.\Ot    t7W7~ 

xorroi  na-div  ;  ovS~&/j.m;  axxa,  too;  <org£<r/3o7sf<5uc  ovla>;  ejcstxtsrj  to7«  y&£ 
Tto$t  iicotvwiovi  rot:  ovop.ct<ri  x,m  fidLx.ovoto  t7ri3->to7r>i;  txeyno.     In  loc. 


160  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

appointment  of  Stephen  and  the  other  six,  and  has 
given  it  as  his  opinion  on  Acts  vi.°  that  the  commis- 
sion was  of  a  special  nature,  and  though  their  duties 
were  in  the  first  instance  ministerial,  yet  they  were 
designed  to  be  preachers,  and  did  go  forth  as  such. 

Isidore  of  Pelusium  flourished  in  the  first  part  of  the 
fifth  century,  and  having  adopted  the  monastic  life, 
he  directed  letters  to  men  of  various  characters  and 
in  different  stations,  even  to  the  emperor  himself. 
Some  officiously  reprove  in  pungent  language ;  others 
temperately  answer  the  bishops,  presbyter  s,  and  dea- 
cons, who  sought  his  counsel.  Being  in  no  instance 
entire,  they  appear  as  extracts  or  abridgments,  la- 
conically written.  He  avows  the  deliberate  purpose 
of  speaking  freely,  and  causing  men  of  no  sensibility 
to  blush  for  sin ;  and  if  he  should  thereby  suffer,  it 
would  be  with  the  prophets,  apostles,  and  saints,  an 
event  desirable  for  him  zcho  was  one  of  the  multitude? 

His  numerous  letters  against  simony  show  it  to 
have  been  then  a  common  vice.  He  charges  it  on 
Eusebius,  the  bishop  of  Pelusium,  whom  he  admits  to 
be  7te,otetai,  but  denies  that  he,  tteaaOai,  renders  the  spi- 
ritual service  of  priest.*1  The  early  corruptions  of  the 
hierarchy  are  sufficiently  evinced  in  his  letters,  which 
accord  with  the  state  of  the  church  after  the  erection 
of  diocesan  episcopacy,  and  the  general  adoption  of 
the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice  into  practice.  He 
uses  the  words  ertioxorto;,  ?t^ofjT'wj,  and  w^ewj,  promiscu- 
ously for  the  same  office;  but  the  last  of  these  words 
most  frequently  both  for  bishop  and  presbyter.  Nor 
has  a  presbyter  been  found  in  the  volume,  who  was 
not  a  priest.  Deacons  and  readers  are  often  men- 
tioned, but  neither  arch-bishop  nor  patriarch  has  been 


°  08«v  cult  S14.H.6VM,  cvli  Tr^iT&uli^aiv  cifxttl  to  cvcua  tna.l  fhhcy 
x.s.1  <pa.vipcv.  Ax\ct  Tiv(  e/c  TCt/7s  i^ttpolcvubno-av,  km  ovk  anac 
fve^s/p/ci^rtv  cthKci  i7rivZat.vlo  ctulon  ytmcbxi  fuvttfjuv — uv1a>t  tvi^ti- 
pto-Qna-av  ovloi  tgv  Koyoi.     Acts  horn.  xiv. 

P  Page  664.  1  Page  326. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  161 

observed.  Yet  he  repeatedly  assigns  a  pre-eminence 
to  Peter  above  the  other  apostles.  This  work,  though 
of  small  importance  in  the  history  of  the  church,  is, 
nevertheless,  by  its  numerous,  brief,  and  often  singu- 
lar expositions  of  difficult  passages  in  the  Scriptures, 
rendered  highly  interesting. 


p  2 


SECTION  XVIII. 


Jerom ;  his  birth,  education,  places  of  residence,  employment,  learning,  and 
death. — His  opinion  of  the  changes  which  had  obtained  in  the  offices  and 
government  of  the  church. — The  ambition  of  presbyters  produced  the  ?icces- 
sily  of  transferring  much  of  their  authority  to  a  president  in  each  church. — 
This  teas  effected  gradually,  and  by  custom. — Jerom  was  contented  with  the 
church  government  established  by  canons  of  councils,  which  had  the  force  of 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  empire  ;  his  denial  of  the  primitive,  or  inspired 
right,  was  to  take  away  the  unjust  defences  of  clerical  improprieties. — His 
letter  to  Evagrius  translated. — The  church  at  Alexandria. — The  expressioris 
of  Jerom  on  different  occasions  explained.  —  The  importance  of  maintaining 
the  succession  of  presiding  presbyters,  to  exclude  heretics ;  but  there  was  no 
re-ordination  of  presbyters  till  the  Cypria?iic  age,  or  middle  of  the  third 
century. 


Jerom  was  born  in  the  upper  confines  of  Dalmatia, 
before  A.  D.  345.  After  preparatory  instructions  at 
Stridon,  and  great  progress  in  philology  at  Rome,  he 
went  into  Gaul  in  OjUest  of  higher  proficiency.  Hav- 
ing returned  from  Rome,  where  he  had  been  baptized, 
he  proceeded  to  Antioch  and  Jerusalem.  In  Syria 
he  devoted  four  years  to  the  prosecution  of  oriental 
languages. 

At  Antioch,  he  sided  with  Paulinus,  by  advice  from 
Damasus,  bishop  of  Rome,  and  A.  D.  375  consented 
to  be  ordained  presbyter,  but  not  to  serve  as  such. 
Thus  at  liberty,  he  chose  Bethlehem  as  his  residence, 
whence  he  visited  Gregory  Nazianzen  at  Constanti- 
nople. In  382,  coming  to  Rome,  he  was  detained  by 
Damasus,  to  whom  his  knowledge  of  languages, 
the  Scriptures,  and  the  world,  seemed  indispensa- 
ble. 

Upon  the  demise  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  he  retired 
to  his  beloved  Bethlehem,  with  a  number  of  recluses. 


THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,    &C.  163 

After  visiting  Egypt,  he  spent  the  residue  of  a  long  life 
in  retirement  at  Bethlehem  with  his  chosen  friends, 
and  died  about  420. 

Devoted  to  study ,a  and  unrivalled  in  learning,b  he 
shared  the  esteem  of  the  greatest  and  best  ;c  but  as  he 
needed  no  emolument,  he  coveted  no  preferment  in 
the  church.  He  acquiesced  in  the  aggrandizement 
and  influence  of  the  ecclesiastical  establishment,  be- 
cause he  thought  the  exercise  of  power  necessary  to 
the  government  of  the  church ;  but  he  would  have  the 
superior  clergy  to  remember,  that  by  the  word  of  God 
they  were  only  presbyters,  and  that  all  higher  author- 
ity was  founded  only  on  custom. 

In  writing  a  translation  and  a  commentary  upon  the 
Scriptures,  which  were  to  continue  to  remote  genera- 
tions, we  naturally  expect  his  most  matured  judgment; 
and,  therefore,  begin  with  his  observations  on  Titus  i. 
5,  &c.  "Let  us  carefullyconsider  thewordsof  theapos- 
tle  :  '  that  you  may  appoint  presbyters  through  the  cities  as 
I  directed  you?  who,  describing  afterwards  the  charac- 
ter to  be  ordained  a  presbyter,  and  having  observed, 
'  If  any  be  blameless,  not  a  polygamist,'  &c.  then  sub- 
joined, 'for  it  becomes  a  bishop  to  be  blameless,  as  a  stew- 
ard o/God.d  A  presbyter  is  the  same,  therefore,  as  a 
bishop ;  and  before  there  arose,  by  the  temptation  of 
the  devil,  preferences  in  religion,  and  it  was  said 
among  the  people,  '  I  am  of  Paul,  I  of  Apollos,  I  of  Ce- 
phas,'  the   churches  were  governed  by  a  common 


a  "  Totus  semper  in  lectione,  totus  in  libris  est."  Sulp.  Serv. 
p.  506. 

b   "In  omni  scienlia  nemo  audeat  comparri."     Id.  504. 

c    "  Plane  eum  boni  omnes  admirantur  et  diligunt."     Id.  506. 

d  "Idem  est  ergo  presbyter,  quietepiscopns,  etantequamdiaboli 
instinctu,  studia  in  religione  fierent,  et  diceretnr  in  populis;  Ego 
sum  Pauli,  ego  Apollo,  ego  aulem  Cepha  .-  commnni  presbyterorum 
concilio,  ecclesia  g-ubernabantur.  Postquam  vero  unusquisque  eos, 
quos  baptizaverat,  suos  pntabat,  non  esse  Christi:  in  toto  orbe  de- 
cretum  est  ut  unns  de  presbyteris  electus  superponeretur  ceteris, 
ad  quern  omnis  ecclesiie  cura  pertineret,  et  schismatum  semina  tol- 
lerentur.     Hierom.  Oper.  torn.  vi.  p.  198. 


164  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

council  of  presbyters.     But  afterwards,  every  one  es- 
teeming those  whom  he  had  baptized  as  his  own,  not 
Christ's,  it  was  decreed,  throughout  the  world,  that 
one  chosen  from  the  presbyters  should  be  placed  above 
the  rest,  to  whom  the  care  of  the  whole  church  should 
belong,  and  the  source  of  all  discord  be  removed.     If 
it  be  supposed  this  is  not  the  sense  of  the  Scriptures, 
but  my  own  opinion,  that  bishop  and  presbyter  are 
one,  and  that  one  is  the  name  of  age,  the  other  of  of- 
fice, read  again  the  words  of  the  apostle  to  the  Phi- 
lippians — '  Paul  and  Timothy,  serva?its  of  Jesus  Christ,  to. 
all  the  saints  in  Christ  Jesus,  who  are  at  Philippi,  with 
the  bishops  and  deacons,  grace  to  you,   and  peace,''   &c. 
Philippi  is  a  single  city  of  Macedonia,  and  certainly 
there  could  not  be  in  the  one  city  many  bishops,  in 
the  present  meaning  of  the  term.    But  because  at  that 
time  they  called  the  same  persons  bishops  whom  they 
called  presbyters,  on  that  account  he  spoke  of  bishops 
indifferently  as  of  presbyters.     This  may  still  seem 
doubtful  to  some,  unless  it  be  proved  by  another  testi- 
mony.    It  is  written  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  that 
when  he  had  come  to  Miletus,  he  sent  to  Ephesus,  and 
called  the  presbyters  of  that  church,  to  whom  he  af- 
terwards said,  among  other  things,  'Attend  to  your- 
selves, and  to  all  the  Jlock  over  which  the  Holy  Spirit  hath 
placed  you  bishops,  to  feed  the  church  of  the  Lord,  which  he 
has  gained  by  his  blood.'     And  here  observe  more  par- 
ticularly, that  inviting  the  presbyters  of  the  one  city, 
Ephesus,  he  afterwards  calls  the  same  bishops.    If  that 
epistle  which  is  written  to  the  Hebrews  under  the 
name  of  Paul,  be  received,  there  also  the  care  of  a 
church  is  equally  divided  among  many;  forasmuch 
as  he  writes  to  the  people,  '  Obey  your  leaders,  and  be  in 
subjection,  for  they  zmtchfor  your  souls,  as  rendering  an 
account,  lest  they  may  do  this  with  sorrow  ;  since  this  is  to 
your  advantage.'     And  Peter,  who  derived  his  name 
from  the  firmness  of  his  faith,  speaks  in  his  epistle, 
saying,  '  Wherefore  the  presbyters  among  you  I  intreat, 
zvho  am  a  co-presbyter,  and  witness  of  the  si/fhings  of 
Christ,  zvho  am  also  an  associate  in  the  glory  which  is  here- 


OF    CHRISTIAN-    CHURCHES.  165 

after  to  be  revealed ;  feed  the  Lord's  flock,  which  is  anion? 
you,  not  from  necessity  but  choice.^ 

"f  These  things  are  recorded,  that  we  may  show, 
that  the  ancient  presbyters  were  the  same  as  the  bish- 
ops, but  by  little  and  little,  that  the  roots  of  dissentions 
might  be  torn  up,  the  whole  trouble  was  devolved  on 
one.  Wherefore,  as  presbyters  know  that  they  are 
subjected  to  him  who  shall  have  been  placed  over 
them  by  the  custom  of  the  church,  so  the  bishops  may 
know  that  they  are  greater  than  presbyters,  rather  by 
custom  than  by  the  verity  of  the  Lord's  appointment; 
and  that  they  ought  to  govern  the  church  in  common, 
imitating  Moses,  who,  when  he  had  it  in  his  power  to 
preside  over  the  people  of  Israel  alone,  selected  seven- 
ty, with  whom  he  might  judge  the  people."^ 

Jerom  imputes  the  origin  of  episcopacy,  not  to  the 
preference  of  one  apostle  to  another,  in  the  church  of 
Corinth — /  am  of  Paul,  &c. ;  for  no  one  of  them  be- 
came superior  in  office  to  the  rest;  but  to  the  capri- 
cious favoritism  of  the  people  for  particular  presby- 
ters, and  to  the  ambitious  efforts  of  those  officers,  who 
aimed  to  promote  themselves  rather  than  to  advance 
the  cause  of  Christ,  which,  he  asserts,  produced  the 
general  consent,  by  little  and  little,  to  transfer  the  re- 
sponsibility of  superintendence  from  the  council  of 
presbyters  to  a  single  presbyter  in  each  church,  for 
the  prevention  of  divisions.  From  his  expressions, 
"  Before — it  was  said  among  the  people,  I  am  of  Paul, 


e  Jerom  has  omitted  t7ri7K07rowli;  in  1  Pet.  v.  2,  but  given  it 
elsewhere. 

f  Hxc  propterea,  ut  ostenderemus  apud  veteres  eosdem  fuisse 
presbyteros  quos  et  episcopos,  paulatim  vero  ut  dissensionum  plan- 
taria  evellerentur,  ad  unum  omnem  solicitudinem  esse  delatam. 
Sicut  ergo  presbyteri  sciunt,  se  ex  ecclesiae  consuetudine  ei,  qui 
sibi  propositus  fuerif,  esse  subjectos;  ita  episcopi  noverint,  se 
magis  consuetudine  quam  dispositionis  dominicje  veritate,  presby- 
teris  esse  majores,  et  in  commune  debere  ecclesiam  regere  imitan- 
tes  Moysen:  qui  cum  haberet  in  potestate  solus  prxsse  populo  Is- 
rael, septuaginta  elegit  cum  quibus  populum  judicaret.  Tom.  vi. 
p.  199. 

B  Tom.  vi.  p.  198. 


1  66  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMEUT 

and  I  of  Apollos"  &c.  which  obtained  at  Corinth  many 
years  before  the  death  of  Paul,  it  has  been  inferred 
that  the  authority  of  the  presbyteries  was  devolved 
on  bishops  before  the  deaths  of  the  apostles.  But  this 
quotation  was  a  mere  accommodation  of  Scripture 
language  to  the  evils  of  after  times ;  for  he  speaks  not 
of  the  transfer  of  authority  from  many  apostles  to  one, 
but  of  that  of  the  presbyters  of  a  church  to  one  of  their 
number.  When  Clement  wrote  his  first  letter  to  the 
Corinthians,  which  all  acknowledge  genuine,  they  had 
no  bishop,  and  this  was  a  little  before  the  death  of  the 
last  apostle.  It  has  been  also  justly  answered  to  the 
strange  inference,  that  the  date  of  the  letter  to  the  Co- 
rinthians, which  has  been  thus  assigned  as  the  time  of 
the  introduction  of  episcopacy,  was  prior  to  the  call  at 
Miletus,  to  the  letter  to  the  Philippians,  to  the  epistle 
to  the  Hebrews,  and  to  the  first  epistle  of  Peter ;  and 
that  Jerom  would  not  have  placed  the  introduction  of 
episcopacy  at  the  period  of  the  schism  at  Corinth,  and 
then  proceeded  to  the  argument  for  original  presbyte- 
rial  parity  from  four  different  facts,  all  of  which  must 
have  occurred  subsequently  to  the  time  which  he  had 
just  before  assigned  as  the  termination  of  such 
equality  among  presbyters.  Had  Jerom  said,  that  be- 
cause of  this  schism  at  Corinth,  it  was  decreed  in  all 
the  world  to  devolve  the  power  on  one,  the  four  in- 
stances which  immediately  follow,  of  the  identity  of 
the  presbyterial  and  episcopal  office,  would  have  been 
palpable  contradictions  of  himself.  Equally  futile  is 
the  position,  that  since  there  were  neither  synods  nor 
councils  to  pass  the  decree  which  he  mentions,  Jerom 
must  have  supposed  it  was  ordained  by  the  apostles. 
His  language  fairly  implies,  that  the  decree  "was  the 
general  adoption  of  the  expedient,  of  the  responsibility 
of  one  presbyter,  by  the  churches  throughout  the  world; 
which  agrees  with  his  representation  of  this  change  as 
a  custom,  which  came  on  gradually  till  it  universally 
prevailed.  Jerom's  legitimate  inference  of  original 
parity,  from  the  identity  of  the  commission,  qualifica- 
tions, and  duties,  and  the  promiscuous  use  of  the 


OP   CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  167 

names  of  presbyter  and  bishop,  in  the  apostolic  times, 
excludes  also  the  idea  of  an  inferior  order  of  presby- 
ters in  his  day;  for  otherwise  his  terms  should  have 
been  restricted.     The  sameness  of  order  in  the  apos- 
tolic age,  which  Titus  was  to  establish  in  all  the  cities 
of  Crete,  is  clearly  evinced  to  have  then  existed  at 
Philippi,  Ephesus,  Pontus,  and  at  the  place  of  the  desti- 
nation of  the  letter  to  the  Hebrews ;  and  it  may  be 
presumed,   until  an  exception  can  be   shown,  in  all 
other   Christian   churches.      The   opposition   of  the 
terms  bishop  and  deacon  is  obvious,  but  none  exists 
between  the  words  bishop  and  presbyter,  which  may 
well-  signify  the   same  officer.     And  the  omission  of 
presbyters  in  Phil.  i.  1,  and  of  their  qualifications  in 
other  letters,  where  those  of  bishops  are  given ;  the 
promiscuous  use  of  the  terms,  as  well  as  the  historical 
fact  of  the  accumulation  of  the  power  of  the  rtgosGtas, 
or  ruling  elder  by  general  consent,  all  show  that  they 
were  at  first  identically  the  same.     The  inference  of 
Jerom,  that  since  this  preference  of  one  was  by  the 
custom  of  the  church,  and  not  by  the  appointment  of 
the  Lord,  that  therefore  the  bishops  ought  to  govern 
in  common  with  the  presbyters,  was  not  only  an  ap- 
peal to  their  consciences,  but  the  clear  expression  of 
the  opinion  of  this  learned  man,  that  episcopal  pre-emi- 
nence  was   destitute    of  apostolical   and    Scriptural 
foundation.     From  the  words  "imitating  Moses,  who, 
when  he  had  it  in  his  power  to  preside  over  the  peo- 
ple   alone,  selected    seventy  with   whom    he   might 
judge  the  people,"  an  inconclusive  argument  has  been 
elicited  for  a  divine  right  in  bishops,  because  Moses 
had  such  right.     But  that  bishops,  otherwise  than  as 
presbyters,  are  destitute  of  such  right,  is  the  very 
thing  which  Jerom  has  proved  from  their  Scriptural 
identity,  and  confirmed   by  fact;  founding    modern 
episcopacy  on  custom  and  general  consent.     He  can, 
consistently  with  himself,  have  meant  no  more  by  the 
example  of  Moses,  than  that,  if  the  Jewish  lawgiver, 
whose  commission  was  immediately  from  God,  so  con- 
descended in  dividing  his  power,  a  fortiori,  bishops 


168  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

should  remember  the  original  administration,  and  that 
their  pre-eminence  was  merely  established  by  custom. 

That  Jerom  was  favorable  to  the  three  orders  of 
clergy  existing  in  his  day,  often  appears  in  his  works  : 
so  when  he  speaks  of  deacons  as  in  the  third  degree, 
he  alludes  to  their  condition  when  he  wrote ;  and  so 
far  was  he  from  desiring  a  change,  that  he  affirmed, 
"  The  safety  of  the  church  depended  upon  the  dignity 
of  the  high-priest."  But  that  its  original  condition, 
when  left  by  the  apostles,  was  otherwise,  he  knew  and 
has  shown.  Against  this,  his  catalogue  of  illustrious 
writers  is  cited,  where  James,  the  author  of  the  epis- 
tle, is  said  to  have  been  ordained  (prdinatus)  bishop  of 
Jerusalem  by  the  apostles.  The  genuineness  of  this  pas- 
sage has  been  often  disputed,  and  standing  among 
numerous  interpolations,  it  is  probably  a  corruption. 
But  if  received,  it  concludes  nothing,  because  bishop 
may  be  taken  in  its  appellative  sense,  overseer,  and 
there  may  have  been  an  understanding  among  the 
apostles  that  he  should  remain  there,  having,  with  the 
presbyters,  the  oversight  of  that  important  station. 
But  if  the  apostle  James  was  ordained  a  bishop  by  the 
other  apostles,  it  was  a  mere  nullity,  if  the  offices  be 
the  same  ;  if  diverse,  the  apostles  either  exalted  him 
to  a  higher  office,  for  which  they  had  no  power ;  or 
they  degraded  him  to  an  inferior,  without  a  fault,  and 
for  no  purpose  which  he  might  not  effect  as  an  apos- 
tle.11 Also,  if  Jerom  said  this,  he  contradicted  him- 
self. 

His  letter  to  Evagrius,  treating  of  the  same  subject, 
may  be  thus  rendered  :  "We  read  in  Isaiah,  'A  fool 
will  utter  foolish  things.''     I  hear  that  a  certain  person 

h  That  James  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  James  the  son  of  Alpheus, 
were  the  two  apostles,  and  that  James  the  less  here  intended,  was 
not  such,  is  an  opinion  without  credible  proof,  and  opposed  at 
much  length  by  Jerom.  But  that  there  were  two  only,  and  that 
James  the  less,  the  Lord's  brother,  was  an  apostle,  and  the  same 
that  is  called  the  son  of  Alpheus,  and  James  the  just,  has  been  the 
general  opinion,  and  received  by  the  church  in  every  age.  Auo 
i*  yeyovzaiv  ~i*.x.c,fioi  ti;  a  futxios — tlipos  tfs  o  Kapdlo/unBu:. — Clem. 
Alexand.     Vide  Gal.  i.  19. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  169 

has  broken  out  into  such  a  frenzy,  as  that  he  would 
honor  deacons  more  than  presbyters,  that  is,  than 
bishops.     For,  since   the   apostle   explicitly   teaches 
that  presbyters  and  bishops  were  the  same,  what  ca- 
lamity' has  this  servitor  of  tables  and  widows  fallen 
under,  that,  swollen  with  self-importance,  he  may  ex- 
alt himself  above  those,  at  whose  prayers  the  body  is 
dispensed  and  the  blood  of  Christ.     Do  you  ask  proof? 
Hear  the  testimony :  '  Paul  and  Timothy,  servants  of 
Jesus  Christ,  to  all  sai?its  in  Christ  Jesus  who  are  at  Phi- 
lippi,  iritli  the  bishops  and  deacons.''     Do  you  wish  also 
another  sample  1  Paul  thus  speaks  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  to  the  priests  of  a  single  church :  '  Be  atten- 
tive to  yourselves  and  to  the  whole  jlock  over  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  has  placed  (you)  bishops,  that  you  might  govern  the 
church  of  the  Lord,  which  he  has  acquired  by  his  blood."1 
And  lest  any  one  may  contentiously  urge,  that  many 
bishops  were  in  the  same  church,  hear  also  another 
testimony,  in  which  it  is  most  clearly  evinced  that 
the  bishop  and  the  presbyter  were  the  same:  '  For 
this  object  I  left  you  in  Crete,  that  you  might  redress  what 
teas  defective,  that  you  might   appoint  presbyters  through 
the  cities,  as  I  also  gave  you  in  charge.    If  any  one  is  with- 
out blame,  the  husband  of  one  wife,  having  faithful  chih 
dren,  not  accused  of  or  not  subject  to  excess  ;  for  it  becomes 
a  bishop,  as  a  steward  of  God,  to  be  above  censure.''     And 
to  Timothy  :  '  Neglect  not  the  grace  that  is  in  you,  which 
was  given  by  prophecy,  by  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  a 
presbytery^     And  Peter,  also,  in  his  first  epistle,  says  : 
'  The  presbyters  among  you,  I  beseech,  7cho  am  a  co-presby- 
ter, and  witness  of  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  a  partaker 
of  the  future  glory  which  is  to  be  revealed,  to  govern  the  flock 
of  Christ,  and  to  oversee  it,  not  from  necessity,  but  willingly 
before    God.''     Which   is  more   plainly  called,  in   the 
Greek,  tTtcaxoTtowlzt,  superintending ;  whence  the  name 
bishop  is  derived.     Do  the  testimonies  of  such  men 
appear  to  you  small  1    Let  the  evangelical   trumpet 
sound,  the  son  of  thunder,  whom  Jesus  greatly  loved, 

•    Quid  al.  quis  paliulur,  &c. 

Q 


170  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

who  drank  from  the  breast  of  the  Saviour  streams  of 
doctrines:  '  The  presbyter  to  the  elect  lady  and  her  chil- 
dren, whom  I  love  in  the  truth.''  And  in  another  letter, 
'  The  presbyter  to  the  most  kind  Gams,  whom  I  love  in  the 
truth.9  k  But  that  afterwards  one  was  selected  who 
might  be  set  over  the  rest,  was  done  in  prevention  of 
schisms,  lest  every  one,  drawing  to  himself,  should 
rend  the  church.  For  also  at  Alexandria,  from  the 
evangelist  Mark  even  to  the  bishops  Heraclas  and 
Dionysius,  the  presbyters  always  named  one,  chosen 
from  themselves,  and  placed  in  a  higher  grade,  bishop. 
In  the  same  manner  as  if  an  army  should  make  a  com- 
mander, or  deacons  choose  from  themselves  one 
whom  they  may  have  known  to  be  industrious,  and 
call  him  the  arch-deacon.  For  what  does  a  bishop 
accomplish,  ordination  excepted,  that  a  presbyter  may 
not  do  ?  The  church  of  the  city  of  Rome,  and  that  of 
the  whole  world,  are  not  to  be  esteemed  different. 
Gaul  and  Britain,  and  Africa  and  Persia,  and  the  East 
and  India,  and  all  the  barbarians,  worship  the  same 
Christ,  and  observe  the  same  rule  of  faith.  If  the  rea- 
son be  sought,  the  world  is  greater  than  a  city. 
Wherever  there  shall  be  a  bishop,  whether  at  Rome, 
or  Gubio,  or  Constantinople,  or  Reggio,  or  Alexan- 
dria, or  Tanes,  he  is  of  the  same  importance  and  of 
the  same  priesthood.  '  Neither  the  influence  of  riches, 
nor  the  humility  of  poverty,  renders  him  a  greater  or 
an  inferior  bishop.  Moreover,  they  are  all  successors 
of  the  apostles.     But  you  ask,  How  is  it  that  at  Rome 

k  Quod  autem  postea  unus  electus  est,  qui  cxteris  proponeretur, 
in  schismatis  remedium  factum  est:  ne  unusquisque  ad  se  trahens 
Christi  ecclesiam  rumpcret.  Nam  et  Alexandria;  a  Marco  evang-e- 
lista  usque  ad  Heraclam  et  Dionysium  episcopos,  presbyteri  semper 
unum  ex  se  electum,  in  excelsiori  gradu  collocatum,  episcopum 
nominabant:  quomodo  si  exercitus  imperatorem  faciat  aut  diaconi 
dig-ant  de  se,  quern  industrium  noverint  et  archidiaconum  vocent. 
Quid  enim  facit,  excepta  ordinatione,  episcopus,  quod  presbyter 
non  faciat  ?  Tom.  i.  p.  264. 

1  Potcntia  divitiamm,  et  paupertatis  humilitas,  vel  sublimiorem 
vel  inferiorem  episcopum  non  facit.  Cxterum  omnes  apostolorum 
succcssores  sunt.     Idem. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  171 

a  presbyter  is  ordained  upon  the  recommendation  of 
a  deacon  1  Why  do  you  propose  to  me  the  custom  of 
a  single  city?  Why  do  you  defend  a  rare  occurrence, 
from  which  disrespect  has  arisen  unto  the  laws  of  the 
church  ?  The  value  of  every  thing  is  enhanced  by 
scarcity.  Pennyroyal  is  more  precious  in  India  than 
pepper.  Their  fewness  has  rendered  the  deacons 
honorable ;  their  multitude  has  depreciated  the  im- 
portance of  presbyters.  Nevertheless,  even  in  the 
church  at  Rome,  presbyters  sit,  whilst  deacons  are 
standing ;  yet  mischief  increasing  by  degrees,  I  have 
seen,  in  the  absence  of  a  bishop,  a  deacon  sit  among 
the  presbyters,  and  in  domestic  entertainments  pro- 
nounce benedictions  on  the  presbyters.  Let  them 
learn,  who  do  this,  that  they  act  incorrectly,  and  let 
them  hear  the  apostles :  '  //  is  unfit  that,  leaving  the 
word  of  God,  we  should  serve  tables.'  They  should  know 
for  what  purpose  deacons  were  constituted.  They 
may  read  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  remember 
their  first  condition.  Presbyter  is  a  name  of  age, 
bishop  of  dignity.  Accordingly,  Titus  and  Timothy 
received  directions  concerning  the  ordination  of  a 
bishop  and  of  a  deacon ;  concerning  presbyters,  total 
silence  is  observed,  because  the  presbyter  is  compre- 
hended in  the  bishop.  He  that  is  promoted  is  ad- 
vanced from  the  less  to  the  greater.  Either,  therefore, 
out  of  a  presbyter  let  the  deacon  be  ordained,  that  the 
presbyter  may  be  shown  to  be  inferior  to  the  deacon, 
unto  whose  grade  he  is  advanced  from  that  which  is 
small ;  or  if  out  of  a  deacon  a  presbyter  be  ordained, 
he  should  know,  that  though  he  be  inferior  in  salary, 
he  is  greater  in  priesthood.  mAnd  seeing  we  know 
that  the  apostolical  traditions  were  taken  from  the  Old 
Testament,  what  Aaron  and  his  sons,  and  the  Levites 


m  Et  ut  sciamas  traditiones  apostolicas  sumptas  cle  Veteri  Testa- 
mento,  quod  Aaron  et  filii  ejus,  atque  Levitx  in  templo  fuerunt, 
hoc  sibi  episcopi  et  presbyteri,  et  diaconi  vindicent  in  ecclesia. 
Ibid. 


172  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

were  in  the  temple,  this  let  bishops,  and  presbyters, 
and  deacons  claim  to  themselves  in  the  church." 

In  no  city  was  planted  by  the  apostles  more  than 
one  church ;  this  the  Scriptural  and  subsequent  his- 
tory of  the  church  demonstrates.  A  presbytery  ex- 
isted in  every  organized  church,  and  no  more  in  a  city: 
consequently,one  presiding  presbyter,  who  afterwards, 
by  custom,  for  prevention  of  schisms,  became  the 
bishop,  belonged  to  each  church,  and  consequently  to 
every  city  in  the  age  of  Jerom.  At  the  period  of  the 
forgeries,  which  bear  the  name  of  the  pious  Ignatius, 
parochial  episcopacy  prevailed ;  but  they  betray  igno- 
rance, who  affirm  that  presbyters  were  then  laymen, 
or  that  such  a  grade  is  an  essential  characteristic  of 
the  Presbyterian  church.  Seven  deacons  were  ap- 
pointed at  Jerusalem ;  no  more  were  ordained  at 
Rome.  This  paucity,  and  the  nature  of  their  duties, 
created  popularity,  whilst  the  number  of  presbyters 
diminished  their  importance.  Dissentions  arose  be- 
tween these  orders,  and  Augustine  has  recorded  an 
appeal  to  the  bishop  of  that  metropolis,  to  decide  be- 
tween them.  Probably  this  letter  was  sought  and 
given  on  that  occasion  ;  or  it  may  have  been  in  de- 
fence of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  who  was  persecuted  by 
a  deacon  of  high  rank.  Though  a  presbyter,  Jerom 
never  officiated  as  such,  except  in  private  lectures  on 
parts  of  the  Scriptures,  but  even  these  were  scarcely 
delivered  by  him  as  an  officer,  either  at  Rome  or 
Bethlehem. 

This  letter  could  not  have  been  the  offspring  of 
jealousy,  but  of  regard  to  the  truth.  His  language  is 
temperate,  his  arguments  rational,  and  his  authorities 
the  Scriptures ;  to  these  custom  and  expediency  are 
subordinated — canons  he  does  not  even  name.  From 
the  practice  here  mentioned  of  the  church  at  Alexan- 
dria, after  the  death  of  Mark  the  evangelist,  the  exist- 
ence of  episcopacy  from  that  period,  which  was  apos- 
tolic, has  been  inferred.  There  could  have  been  little 
difference  between  the  state  of  things  in  apostolic 


OF     CHRISTIAN'     CHURCHES.  173 

times,  and  at  the  death  of  Mark.     In  both,  the  presby- 
teries had  their  ruling  elders  or  presidents ;  upon  them 
custom,  founded  on  consent,  devolved  the  responsi- 
bility and  superintendency  of  the  presbytery,  of  which 
the  church  at  Alexandria  furnished  a  proof.     Jerom 
shows  this  was  a  human  innovation;  because  that 
presbyter  and  bishop  were  originally  the  same  office, 
and  so  regarded  by  Paul,  Peter,  and  John ;  also,  by 
the  churches  of  Philippi,  Ephesus,  those  of  Crete,  and 
other  places ;  each  of  which  had  been  governed  by 
the  common  council  of  its  own  presbytery.    The  elec- 
tion of  such  a  presiding  presbyter  at  Alexandria,  he 
does  not.  refer  either  to  antecedent  apostolic  precept 
or  example,  but  expressly  to  the  presbyters  themselves, 
whose  election  constituted  the  only  disparity.     Mark 
held  the  high  office  of  evangelist,  and,  as  such,  might 
preside  in  any  church,  especially  of  his  own  planting. 
If  he  supplied  the  place  of  a  president,  in  advanced 
age,  after  his  death  the  presbytery  of  Alexandria, 
acting  as  others,  must  have  chosen  one  permanently, 
the  growth  of  whose  power   afterwards  kept  pace 
with  the  customs  of  other  churches.    The  assertion  of 
Eutychius,  A.  D.  950,  that  the  presbyters  in  Alexan- 
dria from  the  first  ordained  such  bishop,  is  incredible. 
Re-ordination  began  in  the  Cyprianic  age,  and  in  Je- 
rom's  day  was  performed  only  by  bishops ;  so  also 
was  the  ordination  of  presbyters.     "  What   does  a 
bishop,  ordination  excepted,  that  a  presbyter  may  not 
do  f"  The  first  of  these  verbs  denoted  a  present  and 
continuous  acting;  the  second  is  of  the  same  sort, but 
potential,  and  consequently  expressing  a  future.     To 
imagine  this  spoken  by  Jerom  of  early  times,  is,  there- 
fore, obviously  incorrect.     When  he  wrote,  every  one 
knew  that  for  presbyters  to  ordain  was  contrary  to 
the  laws  and  canons  of  the  church ;  his  proof  of  their 
original  identity,  from  the  fact  that  presbyters  might 
now  perform  all  other  duties  of  bishops,  required  the 
exception.     But  every  mind  perceives  that  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  identity  destroyed  the  originality  and 
2o. 


174  TliE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

authority  of  the  exception.  Any  other  interpretation 
would  unnerve  his  argument,  produce  self-contradic- 
tion, and  conflict  with  the  fact  that  Timothy  was  or- 
dained by  a  presbytery.  The  sameness  of  the  office 
could,  therefore,  never  be  reconciled  with  episcopal 
ordination  as  in  his  day.  The  confession  of  such  an 
exception,  if  it  referred  to  apostolical  times,  imme- 
diately after  showing  that  presbyters  of  themselves 
chose,  and  placed  in  his  seat,  and  denominated  the 
person  the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  would  betray  weak- 
ness in  the  extreme.  Although  the  presbyters  of  Al- 
exandria officiated  in  their  respective  places  in  the 
city,  they  were  rather  a  parish  than  a  diocess,-  being 
one  church,  whereof  they,  with  their  bishop,  who  was 
one  of  themselves,  constituted  the  presbytery — not  a 
church  session  of  mute  elders — every  presbyter  had 
his  place  of  preaching  in  Alexandria.  Had  the  pres- 
byters, so  chosen  to  preside,  been  ordained  by  presid- 
ing presbyters  of  cities  in  Palestine  or  Syria,  instead 
of  being  an  example  of  the  introduction  of  the  custom 
of  devolving  the  responsibility  and  oversight  which 
had  belonged  to  the  presbytery  on  one  of  their  num- 
ber, it  would  have  proved  the  reverse,  and  contradict- 
ed the  position  that  presbyter  and  bishop  denoted  at 
first  the  same  office. 

It  has  been  strangely  alleged,  that  in  the  last  sen- 
tence of  the  letter  to  Evagrius,  it  is  plainly  asserted 
not  only  "  that  the  hierarchy  of  the  church  is  founded 
on  apostolic  tradition,  but  also  that  the  apostles  had 
the  model  of  the  temple  in  their  view,  and  raised  their 
plan  of  church  government  according  to  the  Jewish 
economy."  The  object  of  this  letter  was  to  show  that 
presbyters  were  superior  to  deacons ;  and  one  ground 
of  the  argument  was,  that  presbyters  were  originally 
bishops,  and  that  the  difference  between  them  in  Je- 
rom's  days  had  arisen  by  degrees,  being  founded 
merely  on  the  custom  of  the  church,  and  having  for 
its  object  the  prevention  of  divisions.  He  must,  there- 
fore, have  designed  no  contrast  in  these  words,  be- 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  175 

tween  bishops  and  presbyters,  but  between  them  as 
one  order  and  deacons  as  the  other.  In  like  manner, 
Aaron  and  his  sons  were  the  same  priesthood,  and 
superior  to  the  Levites,  who  served  under  them.  No 
argument  can  be  fairly  drawn  from  the  terms  "  apos- 
tolical tradition,"  to  make  him  inconsistent  with  his  own 
position,  that  the  change  arose  from  the  custom  of  the 
church.  For  writing  of  Lent,  he  calls  it  an  "  apostoli- 
cal tradition"  in  a  letter  to  Marcella.n  And  against 
the  Luciferians,  he  calls  it  the  custom  of  the  church.0 
He  has  also  shown,  in  so  many  words,  that  apostolic 
was  synonymously  used  for  that  which  was  anciently 
adopted  by  the  church." 

When  Jerom  speaks  of  bishops  as  successors  of  the 
apostles,  he  cannot  mean,  as  some  imagine,  that  they,  in 
the  modern  sense,  immediately  succeeded  them ;  be- 
cause he  has  argued  at  much  length  and  conclusively, 
that  the  office  was  the  same  with  that  of  presbyters  in 
the  days  of  the  apostles,  and  that  the  superiority  they 
possessed  in  his  day  had  arisen  by  the  custom  of  the 
church,  by  little  and  little,  to  prevent  schism.  Also 
the  word  successor  is  not  comparative ;  it  measures  not 
the  extent  of  power,  but  merely  points  out  those  ordi- 
nary officers  who  followed  the  apostles  in  the  govern- 
ment and  instruction  of  the  churches.  The  fanciful 
idea  of  episcopal  successorship  by  divine  right  was  repug- 
nant to  the  views  of  Jerom,  who  has  unanswerably 
refuted  it  by  numerous  Scriptural  testimonies,  and 
demonstrated  his  meaning  and  consistency  by  assert- 
ing equally  of  presbyters,  that  they  were  successors 
to  the  degreQ  of  the  apostles.*1  Iraeneus  had  set  him 
examples  of  each  long  before. 

11  Secundum  traditionem  apostolorum — jejunamus.  Tom.  ii. 
p.  414. 

o  Ex  quo  animadvertis  nos  ecclesix  consuetudinem  scqui.  Tom. 
ii.  p.  424. 

P  Unaquxque  provincia  prxceptu  majorum,  leges  apostolicas 
arbitretur.     Tom.  i.  p.  194. 

i  Qui  apostolico  gradui  succedentes.  Jerom,  ad  Heliodor. 
Tom.  i.  p.  1. 


176  THE     PRIMITIVE     GOVERNMENT,  &C, 

As  numbers  increased,  the  presbyters  served  differ- 
ent assemblies  in  the  same  city  or  parish,  but  still 
belonged  to  one  bench,  over  which  there  was  in  each 
church  a  ftgostfas  or  presiding  presbyter.  These  presi- 
dents were  afterwards  enumerated  as  successors  from 
the  first  planting  of  the  churches.  Thus  not  only  were 
heretics  excluded,  but  their  innovations  rejected,  by 
demanding  an  uninterrupted  succession  of  teachers  of 
their  tenets.  But  that  these  successors  of  the  apostles 
inherited  their  gifts,  authority,  or  influence,  or  had 
any  other  ordination  than  that  of  their  co-presbyters, 
prior  to  the  Cyprianic  age,  has  never  been  shown  to 
us  by  credible  testimony.  His  defence  of  presbyters 
against  deacons,  his  use  of  the  word  presbyter  with- 
out the  imaginary  distinction  of  preaching  and  lay 
elders,  and  his  universal  silence  with  regard  to  the 
latter,  evince  that  Jerom  had  no  idea  of  lay  presbyters. 
He  is,  therefore,  another  witness  against  that  novel 
order,  of  which  not  a  vestige  has  been  found  in  the 
first  four  centuries. 


SECTION    XIX. 


Augustine1  s  birth,  profession,  immorality,  Manicheeism,  and  conversion. — 
Approved  the  canonical  hierarchy. — Called  the  innovations  titular  distinc- 
tions-— Though  a  bishop  confessed  his  inferiority  to  Jerom,  who  was  a 
presbyter.  Seniores  were  not  presbyters,  in  his  letters,  but  aged  Christians. — 
Syjiesius ;  his  writings  show  that  the  church  was  governed  in  Cyrene  ac- 
cording to  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice. — Sulpicius  Severus  testifies 
of  a  moral  declension  in  the  church  ;  and  the  fact  that  a  layman  was  made 
a  bishop  without  censure. 

Aurelius  Augustinus  was  born  at  Tagaste,  in  Nu- 
midia,  A.  D.  354 ;  taught  rhetoric  at  Carthage,  Rome, 
and  Milan ;  and  being  of  dissolute  morals,  adopted  the 
error  of  the  Manichees.  Convinced  by  Ambrose,  he 
became  a  Christian  in  his  thirty-second  year,  and  re- 
turned from  Milan  to  his  native  city.  Five  years  af- 
terwards he  was  ordained  presbyter  by  Valerius,  at 
Hippo  Regius ;  and  in  395  was  received  into  the  epis- 
copate. Of  his  contemporaries,  Ambrose  died  in  the 
fourth  century ;  Chrysostom  and  Jerom  in  the  fifth  ; 
the  former  he  survived  more  than  twenty,  and  the 
latter  about  ten  years.  These  with  Nonnus,  Syne- 
sius,  Sulpicius  Severus,  and  Paulinus,  were  deemed 
orthodox  writers;  Socrates  the  historian,  and  Pela- 
gius,  were  of  the  opposite  character.  He  died  in  Hip- 
po, in  430,  whilst  it  was  besieged  by  the  Vandals. 
His  works  are  contained  usually  in  ten  tomes  and  a 
supplement.  His  confessions  constitute  an  edifying 
history  of  his  early  life,  and  of  his  views  at  different 
periods.  His  retractations  should  be  consulted  with 
the  parts  of  his  works  which  they  correct.  His  know- 
ledge of  the  Greek,  deemed  by  himself  defective,  was 
obviously  competent ;  but  he  excelled  in  the  Latin  Ian- 


178  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

guage,  and  could  not  have  been  ignorant  of  the  Pu- 
nic. His  comparative  proficiency  in  theology  was 
unusual  for  so  late  a  convert.  Possessing  a  mascu- 
line understanding,  his  decisions  were  often  too 
prompt,  but  readily  abandoned  for  the  sake  of  the 
truth.  His  opinions  were  in  high  repute,  and  of  great 
utility  at  the  Reformation,  when  also  some  of  his  er- 
rors were  adopted.  In  ecclesiastical  government,  he 
professed  conformity  to  the  canons  and  customs  of 
the  church.  Thus  when  he  nominated  Eradius  the 
presbyter,  to  become  his  successor,  and  obtained  the 
vote  of  the  people,  he  observed,  that  he  had  been  or- 
dained bishop  in  the  life-time  of  Valerius,  contrary  to 
a  canon  of  the  council  of  Nice,  but  of  which  neither 
of  them  had  had  knowledge ;  the  reprehension  he  had 
received  on  that  occasion,  he  wished  Eradius  to  es- 
cape ;  but  the  vote  he  caused  to  be  recorded  and  sub- 
scribed by  the  people,  and  introduced  the  young  man 
into  a  portion  of  his  labors.3 

That  the  office  of  bishop  was  founded  upon  the  cus- 
tom of  the  church,  he  acknowledges  in  a  letter  to  Je- 
rom :  "  I  intreat  you  to  correct  me  faithfully  when 
you  see  I  need  it ;  for  although,  according  to  the  titular 
disti?ictions  which  the  custom  of  the  church  hath  introduced, 
the  office  of  bishop  may  be  greater  than  an  eldership, 
nevertheless,  in  many  respects,  Augustine  is  inferior 
to  Jerom."b  To  suppose  he  meant  hereby  the  aban- 
donment of  a  known  Scriptural  superiority,  and  the 
depreciation  of  a  divine  right  into  a  mere  titular  pre- 
eminence, is  an  impeachment  of  the  piety  of  Augus- 
tine. The  language,  jam  ecclesice  usus  obti/iuif,  is  a  plain 
acknowledgment,  that  episcopal  superiority  was  not 
original,  but  merely  founded  on  the  custom  of  the 

»    Tom.  ii.p.  515.  Epist.  110. 

'•  — "  llogo  ut  me  fidentur  corrigas,  ubi  mihi  hoc  opus  esse  per- 
spexeris.  Quanquam  enim  secundum  honorum  vocabula,  quse 
jam  ecclesia  usus  obtinuit,  episcopatus  presbyterus  major  sit,  ta- 
men  in  multis  rebus  Augustinus  Hieronymo  minor  est."  Tom.il 
Epist.  ad  Hieron. 


OF    CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  179 

church,  and  no  prevention  of  the  precedence  due  to 
Jerom  for  his  distinguished  learning  and  knowledge. 
Had  Augustine's  compliment  been  made  at  the  expense 
of  truth,  it  would  have  been  also  an  imputation  of  ig- 
norance and  vanity  to  Jerom.  That  canonical  dis- 
tinctions originated  in  custom,  and  were  ratified 
by  mere  human  authority,  was  then  known ;  and 
when  truth  demanded  from  the  bishop  an  acknow- 
ledgment of  his  personal  inferiority  to  the  presbyter, 
it  was  fit,  also,  that  he  should  wave  the  distinction 
which  custom  had  introduced  in  opposition  to  the 
word  of  God. 

He  has,  on  the  question,  Whether  those  charged 
with  false  doctrines  be  in  the  church  or  not,  discarded 
the  authority  of  the  most  venerable  of  the  fathers,  and 
the  obligation  of  the  decrees  of  councils,  and  affirmed 
that  the  question  can  be  decided  by  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures alone.c  But  on  the  order  of  the  church  he  sided 
with  Jerom,  and,  like  him,  acquiesced  in  its  govern- 
ment, apprehending  no  possible  advantage  from  op- 
posing the  customs  of  the  church,  the  canons  of  coun- 
cils, and  the  laws  of  the  empire.  The  ecclesiastical 
administration  was  not  then  a  matter  of  controversy. 
"  The  bishops,  who  are  this  day  throughout  the  world, 
whence  sprung  they  ?  The  church  herself  calls  them 
fathers ;  she  has  borne  them,  and  she  has  placed  them 
in  the  seats  of  the  fathers.'"1  He  acted  as  a  Christian 
should  do ;  the  church  of  Christ  was  then,  and  still  is 
such,  though  the  original  form  of  government  may 
not  exist  in  the  world.  The  investigation  of  truth  is 
rarely  unimportant;  but  on  these  points  necessary 
only,  when  error  would  unchurch  those  whom  God 
accepts ;  or  where  primitive  truth  is  denied,  and  its 
advocates  arraigned  by  the  ignorant. 


c  Deunitale  eccksize.     Chap.  xix.  p.  5. 

<l  "Hodie,  episcopi  qui  sunt  per  totum  mundum,  unde  nati 
sunt  ?  Ipsa  ecclssia  patres  illos  appellat,  ipsa  illos  venuit,  et  ipsa 
illos  constituit  in  sedibus  patrum."     Tom.  viii.  p.  417. 


]  80  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

An  argument  has  been  attempted  for  lay  presbyters 
from  an  epistle  which  Augustine  wrote  to  his  church 
at  Hippo,6   commencing  with  these  words :  "  Dilec- 
tissimis  fratribus,  clero,  senioribus  et  universee  plebi 
ecclesias  Hipponenisis." —  To  the  brethren  greatly  beloved, 
the  clergy?  the  elders,  "  and  all  the  people  of  the  church 
at  Hippo."     The  next  epistle  is  directed  to  the  same 
church,   and    begins    with    "  Dilectissimis  fratribus, 
conclericis,  et  universal  plebi." — To  the  brethren  most 
beloved,  fellow  clergymen,  and  all  the  people,  &c.     These 
two  letters  were  written  to  the  same  church,  conse- 
quently the  same  officers  and  people  were  addressed 
in  both.     The  two  first  terms,  "  dilectissimis  fratribus,'" 
occurring  in  each  salutation,  may  have  been  intended 
of  all  the  worshippers,  or  of  the  clergy  only.     Clero 
the  clergy,  in  the  one  epistle,  corresponds  to  conclericis, 
fellow  clergymen,  in  the  other,  senioribus,  the  elders,  ex- 
pressed in  the  first,  are  included  fn  the  universes  plebi 
of  the   second.     The  conclericis  of  the  second  being 
precisely  equivalent  to  the  clero  of  the  first,  of  which 
the   senioribus  being  expressed,  constituted   no   part, 
there  elders  could  not  have  been  implied  in  the  con- 
clericis.    If  they  were  not  of  the  clergy,  they  were  not 
officers ;  because  had  they  been  such,  they  must  have 
been  treated  with  disrespect,  either  by  a  total  omis- 
sion, or  the  including  of  them  in  the  plebi.     If  they 
were  not  officers,  the  term  senioribus  was  taken  appel- 
latively,  in  that  letter  in  which  it  occurs,  and  meant 
nothing  more  than  the  aged  men  of  the  congregation, 
who  have  been  often  thus  distinguished,  because  of 
their  experience  and  gravity ;  but   are  nevertheless 
really  a  part  of  the  plebs,  or  common  people.     This 
interpretation  is  also   corroborated  by  the    circum- 
stance, that  senioribus,  not  presbijteris,  is  used  ;  the  latter 
being  the  ordinary  official  term,  and  the  other  gene- 
rally appellative ;    a    discrimination   which,    though 

e    Tom.  ii.  p.  661.    Epist.  139. 

f  Clerus  has  been  improperly  translated  a  "  clergyrnan." 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  181 

neo-lected  by  Tertullian  and  Cyprian,  is  carefully  fol- 
lowed by  Optatus  and  Augustine,  who  observes, 
"  Omnis  senex  etiam  presbyter,  non  omnis  presbyter 
etiam  senex."£  — Every  old  man  is  an  elder,  not  every 
elder  also  an  old  man.  These  seniores,  who  sometimes 
occur  in  the  Christian  writers  of  Africa,  are  in  no 
instance  to  be  deemed  of  the  clergy,  they  administered 
no  ordinances,  never  sat  as  presbyters,  and  neither 
excommunicated  nor  restored ;  but  were  placed  after 
the  deacons,  and  consulted  merely  for  their  know- 
ledge and  prudence,  or  introduced  because  of  their 
interest.11  The  captions  of  these  letters  of  Augustine 
are  conclusive  proof,  that  the  seniores  of  whom  he 
speaks  were  not  clerical,  and  so  not  even  on  an 
equality  with  deacons,  and  consequently,  upon  no  con- 
struction, the  *£0£ o7co7f?,  ruling  presbyters  of  the  New 
Testament,  or  any  officers  in  the  gospel  churches. 
That  these  were  never  such  in  the  churches  of  Africa, 
may  be  fairly  also  inferred  from  the  omission  of  them, 
both  in  the  enumeration  of  the  officers  of  a  particular 
church,1  and  in  the  catalogues  given  in  the  councils 
of  Carthage,  where  they  are  thus  enumerated  :  bishop, 
presbyter,  deacon,  subdeaco?i,  acolyth,  exorcist,  reader,  door- 
keeper, and  chorister.*-  If  such  a  class  of  officers  as 
seniores  had  existed  next  after  the  deacons,  they  must 

s  Tom.  iv.  p.  99. 

h  Vitringa  (de  Synag.  115)  has  written  fully  on  this  subject, 
and  denies  that  the  seniores plebis  were  either  ir^ttrfivli^t  vvguuixti- 
rixe,  or  7re:oi^1uQi;7r^sa-/2i/]eeici ;  and  says,  tbey  were  merely  ^sgov7s?, 
and  no  part  of  the  ecclesiastical  body  to  whom  the  care  and  the 
ministry  of  the  church  were  delivered.  Casanbon  distinguishes 
between  seniores  urbium  and  seniores  ecclesiarum ;  these  last,  he 
says,  were  quadamtenus  ecclesiastici,  yet  laid  and  gnardiani  templo- 
rum.  Bingham  (lib.  ii.  c.  19)  considers  the  seniores  of  Augustine, 
Optatus,  and  the  papers  appended  to  the  latter,  to  have  been  men, 
who,  for  their  years  and  faithfulness,  were  intrusted  to  take  care 
of  the  goods  of  the  church,  but  neither  lay  elders  nor  Tgitr^uli^i. 
But  modern  opinions  are  inadmissible  evidence. 

1    Contra  Cresconium.     Lib.  iii.  c.  29. 

k  Concil.  Carthag.  iv.  "Episcopus,  presbyter,  diaconus,  sub- 
diaconus,  acolythus,  exorcista,  lector,  ostarius,  psalmista." 

R 


182  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

have  been  enumerated  in  such  catalogues,  but  nothing 
of  the  kind  has  occurred.  Augustine  describes  the 
orders  of  his  day  in  Africa,  which  no  one  better  knew, 
in  the  same  manner.1  "  A  higher  order  contains  in 
and  with  itself  that  which  is  less,  for  the  presbyter  per- 
forms also  the  duty  of  the  deacon,  and  of  the  exorcist, 
and  of  the  reader.  Also,  that  a  presbyter  is  to  be  un- 
derstood to  be  a  bishop,  the  apostle  Paul  proves, 
when  he  instructs  Timothy,  whom  he  had  ordained  a 
presbyter,  what  kind  of  a  bishop  he  ought  to  create ; 
for  what  is  a  bishop  but  a  primus  presbyter,  that  is,  a 
high-priest,  and  he  calls  them  no  otherwise  than  his  co- 
presbyters  and  co-priests,  and  may  not  the  bishop 
also  call  his  deacons  his  fellow  servants  ?"  But  he 
had  immediately  before  professed  not  to  know  by 
what  law,  by  what  custom,  or  what  example,  "  the  deacons 
were  made  equal  zvith  presbyters,"  " presbyteris  ministros 
ipsorum  pares,"  "  as  if  deacons  were  ordained  from 
presbyters,  and  not  presbyters  from  deacons." 

The  expression,  Pereqrinas  presbyter  el  se?nores  ecclesicz 
mustxcancz  regionis,  obc"1  have  been  alleged  in  proof, 
that  the  church  in  the  city  Mustica  had  not  only  a 
preaching  presbyter,  but  lay  elders  also  ;  and,  conse- 
quently, that  here  is  at  least  one  example  of  the  exist- 
ence of  elders,  such  as  are  formed  in.  some  of  the 
Presbyterian  churches.  But  this  semblance  of  an  ex- 
ample of  lay  elders  in  an  ancient  church,  is  too  slight 
to  sustain  an  examination.  The  distinction  made  be- 
tween Peregr'mus  and  the  seniores  ecclesia  was,  that  he 
was  a  presbyter  and  they  were  not  presbyters :  if  not 

1  "  Major  enim  ordo  intra  se  et  apud  se  habet  et  minorem,  pres- 
byter, enimdiaconi  agit  officium  et  exorcists  et  lectoris.  Presby- 
terum  autem  intelligi  episcopum,  probat  Paulas  apostolus,  quando 
Timotbeum,  qucm  ordinavit  presbyterum,  instruit  qualem  debeat 
creare  episcopum.  Quid  est  enim  episcopus,  nisi  primus  presbyter, 
hoc  est  summus  sacerdos.  Denique  non  aliter  quam  compresby- 
teros  bic  vocat,  et  consacerdotos  suos,  numquid  et  ministros  con- 
diaconos  suos  dicit  episcopus. "     Tom.  iv.  780. 

m  Tom.  vii  p.  270. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  183 

presbyters,  consequently  not  the  ruling  elders  of  the 
New  Testament,  for  these  were  presbyters,  7teoea7u,lti 
ne,io$v' 'igoi.  Being  neither  presbyters  nor  deacons,  and 
no  intermediate  grade  ever  having  existed  in  the 
church,  these  seniores  consequently  had  no  office. 
Also,  if  they  were  not  presbyters,  the  word  seniores 
must  necessarily  be  understood  in  its  appellative  sense, 
old  men  ;  and  the  whole  expression,  seniores  ecclesice,  can 
mean  no  more  than  the  aged  men  of  the  church.  This  pas- 
sage describes  the  prosecution  of  a  petition  before  the 
tribunal  of  the  prastor  at  Carthage  by  the  presbyter 
Peregrinus,  and  the  senior  members  of  the  church  at 
Mustica,  against  Felicianus,  who  detained  possession 
against  the  sentence  of  an  ecclesiastical  assembly, 
which  pronounced  him  a  heretic.  That  the  aged  mem- 
bers, in  whom  the  possession  at  least,  and  it  may  be 
the  legal  title  of  the  church  had  been  vested,  should 
join  with  a  presbyter  in  such  petition,  was  naturally 
to  be  expected ;  and  no  more  is  here  expressed. 

The  state  of  the  church  in  North  Africa,  excluding 
Egypt  and  Cyprenaica,  was,  in  the  days  of  Augustine, 
very  different  from  that  of  other  countries.  As  every 
city  had  its  bishop,  so  every  parish  was  a  diocese,  and 
every  pastor  a  bishop.  The  episcopate  of  Carthage 
had  the  superintendence  of  Africa,  and  the  bishop  of 
Hippo  Regius,  instead  of  Cirta,  (Constantina)  for  the 
most  part  next  to  the  Metropolitan  of  Carthage,  had 
precedence  over  those  in  Numidia ;  but  in  the  Mauri- 
tanias,  and  generally  in  Africa,  this  depended  upon 
seniority  in  office,  and  nol  upon  the  civil  dignity  of 
the  city,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  empire. 

The  greatest  respect  was  paid  to  old  men,  both 
among  Jews  and  Gentiles.  Polybius  observes,  that 
among  the  Lacedaemonians  under  the  regal  authority, 
all  things  which  respected  the  commonwealth  zcere  transact- 
ed by  and  with  the  concurrence  of  the  old  men.n      The 


Troxfltixy.     Polyb.  Hist.  lib.  vi.  p.  681. 


184  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

Christian  churches  also  adopted  a  wise  conformity  to 
such  usages.  To  be  consulted  was  the  claim  of  the 
aged,  when  their  interests  were  concerned,  in  religious 
as  well  as  in  civil  matters  of  importance.  Thus  in  the 
"  Gesta  Ccecilianie.t  Felicis,"  usually  bound  up  with  Op- 
tatus,  mention  is  made  of  episcopi,  presbyteri,  diaconi, 
and  seniores — seniores  meaning  not  officers,  but  aged 
men  of  the  common  people.  Nevertheless  these  se- 
niores, though  divided  from  presbyters  by  the  inter- 
vention of  deacons,  have  been  brought  as  examples 
and  proofs  of  lay  elders,  and  identified  with  those  who 
are  in  the  New  Testament  denominated  ruling  presby- 
ters ;  but  who  really  were  and  have  been  shown  by 
many  testimonies  to  have  been  those  presbyters  who 
presided,  one  in  every  church,  and  who,  after  the  days 
of  the  apostles,  received  by  custom  gradually  the 
power,  name,  and  dignity  of  bishops.  The  mistake  is, 
however,  exposed  by  what  follows:  "Adhibete  con- 
clericos  et  seniores  plebis,  ecclesiasticos  viros." — Call 
the  clergy  of  every  sort,  and  the  seniores  of  the  common  peo- 
ple, who  are  members  of  the  church.  Here  conclericos  in- 
cludes the  presbyters,  deacons,  and  sub-deacons, 
whilst  the  seniores  are  pdebes,  or  common  people.0 

Synesius  was  chosen  and  ordained  bishop  of  Ptole- 
mais  in  Pentapolis,  when  a  layman.  He  wrote  in  ele- 
gant style,  but  rather  as  a  philosopher  than  a  divine. 
His  discourse  delivered  A.  D.  398  before  the  emperor 
Arcadius,  and  several  epistles  written  in  the  first  of 

°  That  clero  et  seniriribus  should  have  been  translated  "  to  the 
clergyman  and  elders,"  more  than  once  in  support  of  the  American 
Presbyterian  government,  is  by  mistake.  Clero  et  senioribus  mean 
the  same  with  clericis  et  senioribus.  Clems  is  never  clergyman,  this 
is  clericus,  but  clergy  ,-  and  the  term  comprehended  at  that  period, 
what  it  still  does  among  Episcopalians,  presbyters,  deacons,  &c.  ; 
consequently,  senioribus  meant  a  portion  of  plebis,  common  people  ; 
and  was  still  further  restricted  by  the  terms  ecclesiasticos  viros, 
church  members,  not  ecclesiastics ,-  '■'ecclesiastical  men"  in  our  lan- 
guage is  a  phrase  equivalent  to  clerical,  and  an  obviously  unfair 
translation  of  ecclesiasticos  viros,  which  intended  no  more  than  men 
of,  or  connected  with,  the  church. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  185 

the  following  century,  still  remain  in  Greek,  his  own 
language,  Cyrene,  his  native  city,  having  been  colo- 
nized from  Greece.  He  distributes  the  officers  of  the 
church  into  the  Levite,  the  presbyter,  and  the  bishop, 
%ivilns,  *£jcr/3i>7££of  xai  traoxortasJ'  The  latter  of  whom  he 
denominates  the  priest  of  a  city,  his  office  a  priesthood, 
tt^oowriv,^  and  speaks  of  the  election  of  a  bishop,  axgtffswj 
trciGxortov,r  and  of  the  imposition  of  the  hand,s  where- 
by the  party  is  manifested  a  presbyter,  ^se^e.  rte,sGpv7ee.os 
artsSeSuxlo.1  His  representations  accord  with  the  estab- 
lished order  of  the  ecclesiastic  administration  of  his 
day,  and  shows  that  among  the  Greek  Christians  in 
Africa,  the  church  was  governed  at  that  period  ac- 
cording to  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice. 

Severus,  of  the  Sulpician  family,  a  presbyter  of 
Agen  on  the  Garonne  in  France,  wrote  an  outline  of 
history,  sacred,  Jewish,  and  Christian,  from  the  crea- 
tion unto  the  end  of  the  fourth  century ;  the  life  of 
Martinus  ;  three  epistles,  and  three  dialogues ;  and  is 
supposed  to  have  died  about  A.  D.  420.  His  style 
discovers  advantages  in  his  education.  His  judgment 
of  characters  and  historical  facts  might  have  escaped 
censure,  had  his  credulity  in  monkish  legends  known 
any  bounds.  Speaking  of  the  military  guard,  directed 
by  the  emperor  Hadrian  to  be  constantly  kept  at  Je- 
rusalem, he  observes,  that  until  that  period,  "  the 
church  had  no  priest  at  Jerusalem,  except  of  the  circumci- 
sion,'''' and  that  "  then  first  Mark,  of  Gentile  extraction,  was 
made  their  bishop."11  Priests,  Levites,  altars,  sacrifices, 
and  other  words  proper  to  Jewish  and  Pagan  worship 

P  Synesii  Opera,  p.  2.3.     Epist.  58. 

q  o  ligivt;  tuc  TraKia>%.     Ibid.  p.  198. 

i-   Page  222. 

s  T»5  crcu^jigoc.     Page  223. 

t    Page  222. 

u  "  Hierosolymse  non  nisi  ex  circumcisione  habebat  ecclesia 
sacerdotem" — "  turn  primum  Marcus  ex  gentibus  apud  Hierosoly- 
mam  episcopus  fuit."  Sulpicii  Severi  Sac.  Hist.  lib.  ii.  S.  45, 
p.  364,  365, 

r2 


186  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

were  not  introduced  till  after  the  days  of  the  apostles, 
into  the  Christian  church ;  and  sacerdos,  here  promis- 
cuously used  with  episcopus,  at  its  first  introduction, 
designated  only  the  presbyter,  which  the  occasional 
insertion  summits,  by  this  writer,  to  distinguish  the 
bishop,  still  viewed  as  the  primus  presbyter,  plainly 
evinces. 

When  comparing  the  state  of  the  Christian  church 
in  the  time  of  the  ten  years  persecution,  under  Diocle- 
tian and  Maximums,  he  observes,  that  martyrdoms  were 
then  much  more  eagerly  sought  by  glorious  deaths,  than 
episcopal  sees  are  now  coveted  by  depraved  ambition  ;v  a 
clear  evidence  of  the  moral  declension  of  the  church 
in  a  single  age  after  the  establishment  by  Constantine 
of  that  episcopal  government,  which  had  been  intro- 
duced by  custom,  founded  in  the  expediency  described 
by  Jerom. 

In  the  history  of  his  own  times,  he  mentions  the 
fact,  that  Pi-iscilianus  made  a  layman,  bishop  of  Abila. 
— "  Priscilianus  etiam  laicum  episcopum  in  Labinensi 
(abilensi  apud  Hieron.)  oppido  constituit."w  Nor  was 
this  objected  against  him  by  the  orthodox.  In  the 
writings  of  Sulpicius  there  is  mention  of  bishops,  pres- 
byters, arch-deacons,  deacons,  sub-deacons,  readers, 
exorcists,  but  not  a  solitary  instance  of  any  such  of- 
fice as  that  of  a  presbyter,  who  was  a  layman. 

Synesius  resided  on  the  east  side  of  North  Africa  ; 
Sulpicius  in  the  west  of  Europe;  the  former  under  the 
government  of  the  Greeks,  the  latter  that  of  the  Ro- 
mans; the  first  was  a  gentleman  of  estate,  the  other  a 
nobleman  ;  the  one  a  philosopher,  the  other  an  histo- 
rian ;  and,  when  converted,  the  former  a  bishop,  the 
latter  a  presbyter;  both  were  acquainted  with  the 
government  of  the  Christian  church,  and  both  have 

▼  "  Multoque  avklius  turn  martyria  g-loriosis  mortibus  quareban- 
tin\  quamnunc  episcopatus  pravis  ambitionibus  appetuntur." 
Ibid.  p.  368. 

w   Idem.  lib.  ii.  S.  63,  p.  422. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  187 

recorded  their  views ;  yet  neither  a  word,  nor  a  hint, 
has  appeared  in  the  works  of  either  concerning  lay- 
presbyters,  or  any  such  officer  in  the  Christian 
church. 


SECTION   XX. 


John  Cassian  ;  his  progress  mid  writings. — Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  Theo- 
doret,  ecclesiastical  historians,  whose  writings  describe  the  government  of 
the  Christian  church  from  the  council  of  Nice,  or  commencement  of  the 
reign  of  Constantine  the  Great. — The  establishment  of  Christianity,  and 
the  power  given  to  ecclesiastical  officers  for  its  safety,  every  one  then 
approved. — The  introduction  of  the  Gospel  into  India  in  the  days  of  Con- 
slantius  and  Athanasius,  is  testified  by  them  all,  and  by  Ammianus,  and 
was  in  the  fourth  century,  and  must  have  been  diocesan  episcopacy. 

John  Cassiajv,  after  leaving  a  monastery  at  Bethle- 
hem, and  visiting  others  in  Egypt,  was  ordained  a 
deacon  by  Chrysostom  at  Constantinople.*  Thence 
he  went  to  Rome,  and  finally  to  Marseilles,  where  he 
was  made  a  presbyter,  and  resided  till  his  death,  A.  D. 
440.  The  Greek  was  probably  his  native  language, 
but  he  appears  in  Latin.b  He  wrote  Instructions  for 
Monks,  in  twelve  books ;  Conferences  with  Egyptian 
Ecclesiastics ;  and  of  the  Incarnation,  in  seven.  These 
writings  incidentally,  but  correctly,  describe  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  church,  at  that  period,  as  episcopal ; 
yet  express  an  opinion,  that  the  first  state  of  the 
church  was  monastic,  and  all  things  common,  and 
that  the  latitude  given  by  the  council  at  Jerusalem  was 
because  of  Gentile  infirmity.  But  when,  even  from 
this,  the  church  had  degenerated,  some,  possessing 
the  fervor  of  the  apostles,  left  the  cities,  and  retired 
•into  private  situations,  who  are  thence  called  Monks, 
Anchorites,  Eremites,  and  Ascetics. 

a  Dc  Incarnatione,  lib.  vii.  c.  31. 
b   Collatio  i.  c.  v.  p.  219. 


THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,   &C.  189 

An  abbas  was  the  head  of  a  monastery,  and  if  it  was 
remote  from  a  city,  or  very  large,  he  was  usually  a 
presbyter,  that  he  might  administer  the  sacraments. 
But  sometimes  vain  glory  suggested  clerical  prefer- 
ment, and  a  desire  of  the  office  of  presbyter,  or  dea- 
con. Each  of  these  was  then  a  clerical  grade;0  the 
office  of  presbyter  was  consequently  undivided,  and 
that  of  a  deacon  being  also  clerical,  the  possibility  of 
an  inferior  presbyter  is  excluded. 

Seniores,  in  the  writings  of  Cassian,  mean  either  ab- 
bates,  or  the  monks,  who  are  intrusted  with  the  care 
of  the  noviciates/1  except  when  taken  for  the  Chris- 
tian fathers,  never  ecclesiastical  officers,  for  he  deemed 
it  an  important  maxim,  that  a  "  monk  should  by  all 
means  shun  the  bishops ;"  which  he  said  he  could  not 
always  rehearse  without  confusion,  for  he  had  not 
been  able  to  escape  their  hands.e 

Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  Theodoret,  wrote  eccle- 
siastical histories  of  the  same  times,  beginning  in  the 
reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  and  terminating  about 
the  times  of  Theodosius  the  Younger.  Their  concur- 
rent testimony  evinces  the  continued  influence  of  the 
canons  of  the  council  of  Nice,  established  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  Roman  emperor ;  which,  with  various 
modifications,  are  still  the  fundamental  laws  of  the 
Catholic  ecclesiastical  government;  and  have  been, 
and  probably  always  will  be,  unceremoniously  en- 
forced, wherever  her  physical  means  have  extended  or 
shall  be  supplied.  These  historians  are  competent,  but 
not  always  credible  witnesses,  even  of  the  things  which 
occurred  in  their  own  times ;  for  great  allowances 
must  be  made  for  the  ignorance,  credulity,  and  depra- 
vation of  the  people,  and  the  arts  and  ambition  of  a 

c  "  Nonnunquam  vero  clericatus  gradum,  et  desiderium  presby- 
teri  vel  diaconatus  innuitit."  Scil.  Cenodoxia,  lib.  xi.  c.  14,  p. 
178. 

d   Lib.  xii.  c.  14,  p.  193.     Col.  i.  c.  22,  p.  325. 

e  Lib.  xi.  c.  IB,  p.  181,  de  institutis. 


190  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

clergy,  who  maintained  their  establishment  by  the  vigi- 
lant exercise  of  their  new  authority,  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  monkish  legends  and  fraudulent  devices,  in 
the  place  of  the  simplicity  of  the  gospel,  and  its  saving 
truths. 

Socrates  was  born  at  Constantinople/  in  the  reign 
of  Theodosius  the  First.  After  a  liberal  education, 
he  studied  and  professed  the  law,  and  wrote  his  history 
in  seven  books. 

Canonical  ordination,  introduced,  as  we  have  seen, 
without  either  Scriptural  precept  or  apostolical  exam- 
ple, could  neither  enlarge  nor  limit  the  office  of  pres- 
byter ;  its  essence  was  the  same,  the  ordainers  being 
still  presbyters.  Also,  the  ambition  of  preachers  ren- 
dered convenient,  custom  established,  and  civil  au- 
thority confirmed,  a  diocesan  form  of  government ;  but 
neither  were  the  essentials  of  the  church  of  Christ 
thereby  destroyed,  nor  have  presbyters  gained; 
whether  considered  as  bishops  or  priests,  for  lay  pres- 
byters as  yet  had  no  existence,  a  particle  more  or  less 
of  legitimate  Scriptural  power  than  had  been  at  first 
given  to  them.  As  members  of  the  social  compact, 
they  may  receive  and  bear  its  authority ;  and  as  of- 
ficers of  civil  society,  they  ought  to  be  respected ;  but 
when  they  claim,  hold,  and  exercise  municipal  offices, 
by  a  divine  right,  because  the  office  of  presbyter  is  of 
such  nature,  their  pretensions  are  absurd,  and  where 
their  discernment  justifies  the  charge  of  disingenuity, 
wicked. 

At  that  period,  no  prudent  Christian  would  have 
refused  to  abide  by  those  canons  of  councils,  which, 
being  the  supreme  law  of  the  empire,  secured  the  peo- 
ple from  Pagan  persecution  under  which  they  had 
groaned  so  long.  Also,  the  high  respect  entertained 
for  the  canon  law,  at  the  first,  appears  by  many  ex- 
amples. When  the  church  at  Constantinople  were 
told  that  Proclus,  whom  they  had  elected,  could  not 

f  Socrat.  lib.  v.  c.  24. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  191 

become  their  head,  because  a  canon  had  forbidden 
the  translation  of  a  bishop,5  they  submitted  without 
complaint.  But  on  the  next  vacancy,  it  having  been 
discovered  that  no  such  canon  existed,  they,  after 
twenty  years,  re-elected  the  man  of  their  choice,  who 
became  their  bishop.1'  Also,  the  fact,  that  the  bishop 
of  Rome  was  deemed  to  have  passed  the  bounds  of 
priestly  order  in  punishing  the  Novatians,1  clearly 
shows,  that  the  public  knew  that  the  civil  was  to 
be  merely  auxiliary  unto,  not  superseded  by,  eccle- 
siastical authority,  in  the  application  of  force.  It  was 
deemed  also  a  departure,  from  rules,  though  highly 
expedient,  that  Silvanus,  bishop  of  Troas,  should  ap- 
point a  layman  to  try  those  causes,  which  the  clergy 
had  been,  before  that  period,  authorized  to  decide.k 
This  could  not  then  have  been  a  novelty,  had  lay  pres- 
byters previously  existed  in  the  church.  Nor  have 
we,  in  all  the  seven  books  of  Socrates,  discovered  so 
much  as  a  word,  or  hint  of  the  existence  of  such  an 
office,  whilst  bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons,  fre- 
quently occur,  and  always  in  the  character  of  clergy. 

Hermias  Sozomenes,  a  native  of  Palestine,1  cotem- 
porarywith  Socrates,  wrote  nine  books,  and  dedicated 
his  history  to  Theodosius  the  Younger. 

This  writer  presents  neither  a  vestige  of  the  long 
sought  office  of  a  subordinate  presbyter,  nor  of  any 
diversity  among  presbyters,  except  the  surrender  of 
the  exercise  of  a  portion  of  their  authority  to  one  of 
their  number,  then  exclusively  denominated  bishop. 
The  excellency  of  his  style  challenges  our  regard  to 
his  sense  of  terms.  For  bishop,  he  uses,  promiscuously, 

tiiiexoTtos,    7i£oa7a7^ j, m  rt£0£c;7coj,n    rtyovjj.Bvo^°    and  rtgoolaaia, 

and  frtioocorfjj,  as  convertible  terms.1'      It  would  have 

B  Lib.  v'ri.  c.  36.  Ibidem  c.  40, 

1    Lib.  vii.  c.  11.  k  Lib.  vii.  c.  37. 

1    Sozom.  Hist.  lib.  v.  c.  15. 

i"    %iipo7ov}ie-tt  thc   avlii^imv  «xxX»tr/ac  Trgce-lxlnv .      Lib.  ii.  c.   19. 
n   T&ic  Tgct?laTi  t»v  txx,hn<ria>y.     Lib.  vi.  c.  4. 
°    Lib.  vi.  c.'32.  i>  Lib.  viii.  c.  i. 


192  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

been  unaccountable,  had  Paul  intended,  by  the  very 
same  word,  a  subordinate  lay  presbyter/i  which  other 
writers  have  adopted  to  distinguish  the  bishop.  But 
the  Apostle,  and  every  Greek  reader  of  his  letter,  un- 
derstood by  it,  the  presbyter  who  presided  in  the 
church  or  presbytery.  And  this  ruling  elder  was  the 
man  in  every  church,  who,  according  to  Jerom,  re- 
ceived, by  a  general  custom,  and  became  accounta- 
ble for,  the  exercise  of  the  higher  powers  of  the  pres- 
bytery. That  each  church,  with  tew  exceptions,  still 
had,  under  the  Nicene  establishment,  its  presbyters,  is 
abundantly  evinced.  Thus,  instead  of  the  confessions 
of  lapsed  professors  made  to  the  presiding  presbyter, 
in  the  presence  of  the  witnessing  multitude  of  the  church, 
as  in  a  theatre,1'  the  duty  was  assigned  to  one  of  the 
presbyters  in  every  church.  At  Alexandria  this 
change  did  not  obtain,  for  it  had  been  there  the  cus- 
tom, and  still  was  when  Sozomen  wrote,  for  each  pres- 
byter to  have  his  own  charge,  over  all  of  whom  one 
was  the  bishop  ;s  and  as  each  presbyter  preached  in 
in  his  own  place,  so  the  bishop  also  alone  in  his,  the 
arch-deacon  reading  the  Scriptures.'    ** 

Other  diversities  also  existed;  in  some  provinces 
there  was  a  single  bishop,  in  others,  bishops  were  con- 
secrated  in    the    villages^    sv   xto^cuf   tTtioxoTioi,    u^ovovvlat." 

Also,  the  custom  in  Rome  of  having  only  seven  dea- 
cons, was  not  followed  in  all  places/ 

Theodoritus,  a  native  of  Antioch,  was,  at  seven 
years  of  age,  received,  for  the  sake  of  education,  into 
a  monastery,  and  afterwards  instructed  by  Theodore 
of  Mopsuesta,  and  Chrysostom.  From  the  episcopate 
of  Cyrus,  a  remote  city  of  Syria,  which  he  had  reJuc- 

q    1  Tim.  v.  17. 

i"  a>;  ev  &2x7««  -J-ri  juuglugt  rce  7r\n9il"nc  t*x.X»o-iu,{.  Sozom.  lib. 
vii.  c.  16. 

•  Hivx.1  y*g  tv  cLhiZztSgii*.  sSoc  K2.Q3t.7r1g  ksu  vt/v  tvos  ev7if  tov  kujx. 
Tctvlav  iTiTK^Trcu,  rrgscjiuligcvc  iSix,  Ttfc  tx.KK»<rix;  x.a.li%ut  kxi  tcp 
tv  t*.ul*.t<  hxcv  truvctyuv.     Lib.  i.  c.  16. 

t  Socrat.  lib.  v.  c.  22.      ngarZ-jligo;  tv  x^i^xvSgaa.  ov  7rgo(o-/Ai?,n, 

"   Sozom.  lib.  vii.  19.  »  Ibidem. 


OF    CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES. 


193 


tantly  accepted,  he  was  translated  to  Antioch,  after- 
wards deposed  by  a  council,  and  finally  by  another 
restored  to  his  former  see,  where  he  died  A.  D.  457. 
His  principal  works  are  his  commentaries  upon  the 
Pentateuch,  Joshua,  Judges,  Psalms,  Canticles,  &c. 
all  the  prophets  but  Isaiah,  and  all  the  epistles  of  Paul ; 
an  ecclesiastical  history  in  five  books.  He  wrote  also 
dialogues,  sermons  on  Providence,  letters,  and  on 
several  other  subjects.  His  piety  is  unquestionable, 
his  talents  above  mediocrity,  his  style  charming,  and 
yet,  however  strange,  his  credulity  was  disgusting  and 
contemptible. 

No  where  is  more  clearly  seen  than  in  his  history, 
either  the  influence  upon  civil  government  which  ec- 
clesiastical polity  can  maintain,  when  legally  estab- 
lished; or  its  tendency,  from  the  venality  of  ambi- 
tious ecclesiastics,  to  become  an  engine  of  oppression, 
or  an  instrument  of  power  in  the  hands  of  princes. 
Julian  sought  sanctuary  in  it  as  a  reader,^  whilst  in 
his  heart  an  idolater,x  and  an  enemy,  for  he  interdicted 
the  teaching  of  poetry,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy  to  the 
"  Galileans."?  Nor  could  he  have  had  any  aim,  in 
recalling  to  Antioch,  Alexandria,  Italy,  and  Sardinia,  z 
their  banished  bishops,  but  to  procure  favor  with  the 
Christians,  whose  numbers  he  feared.  Accordingly 
as  an  emperor  was  pagan,  Arian,  or  orthodox,  he 
contrived  to  countenance  idolatry,  or  to  introduce 
bishops  of  his  own  creed,  but  generally  with  caution. 
All  parties  courted  power,  and  by  it  Pagans  and  Chris- 
tians, without  other  argument,  asserted  their  claims. 
Yet  was  it  a  posing  question,  which  a  presbyter  ol 
Edessa  offered  to  the  Prefect,  who  was  directed  by 
Valens  to  support  a  bishop  of  his  own  appointment : 
"  Whether  the  emperor  received  the  dignity  of  priest- 
hood with  the  imperial  commission."aa     For  this*  he 

w  Theod.  Hist.  Eccles.  lib.  iii.  c.  2. 

*   — Exta  rimabatur  adsidue,   avesque    suspiciens. — Ammian. 
Marcell.  lib.xxii.  c.  1. 

y  Theod.  lib.  iii.  c.  7.         *  Lib.  iii.  c.  4.         ™  Lib.  iv.  c.  16. 
S 


194  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

suffered  ostracism  by  the  edict  of  Valens,  who,  like 
Julian,  hated  the  Christians,  and,  like  him,  fell  by  the 
just  vengeance  of  heaven.  This  discrimination  was 
confessed  also  by  Valentinianus,  when  he  said  to  or- 
thodox bishops  soliciting  a  convention  of  the  clergy, 
whom,  nevertheless,  he  favored,  that  it  was  not  law- 
ful for  him,  a  layman,  officiously  to  interfere.bb  In 
like  manner,  Theodosius,  to  whom  Gratian  had  trans- 
ferred the  East  after  the  death  of  his  uncle,  when  Am- 
brose directed  the  emperor,  by  a  deacon,  to  stand 
without  among  the  laity,  "for  that  the  purple  constituted 
emperors,  not  priests"  took  the  station  assigned  him, 
and  expressed  his  gratitude  for  the  reproof.ce  The 
efforts  of  Theodosius  were  exerted  to  reduce  the  re- 
maining idolatry  which  Julian  had  revived,  and  Va- 
lens, after  the  death  of  Jovian,  had  partially,  at  least 
re-revived.  From  that  time  the  hierarchy  established 
by  Constantinedd  remained  immovable  amidst  the 
convulsions  of  the  eastern  and  western  empires,  and 
the  paralyzing  influence  of  Arian  and  other  heresies; 
and  may  be  said,  under  all  the  revolutions  of  modern 
times,  still  to  exist. 

In  his  commentaries  we  find  no  lay  presbyters,  and 
no  discrimination  between  those  who  rule,  and  those 
who  labor  in  teaching.™  He  even  makes  them  the  same 
persons."-  In  one  place,  he  supposes  they  thai  were 
over  them,^  were  those  who  offered  up  prayers ;  in 
which  he  agrees  with  Justin,  who  says,  the  president, 
*£os<j7u$,  offered  up  the  eucharistic  prayers.  He  ac- 
knowledges that  presbyters  are  intended,  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  New  Testament,  where  bishops  are  named :',K 


Sdzomen.  lib.  vi.  c.  7. 

ce  Theod.  Hist.  Eccles.  lib.  v.  c.  18. 

dd  Idem.  lib.  v.  c.  20. 

ce  Theod.  1  Tim.  v.  17.  Heb.  xiii.7. 

ff  Idem.  Heb.  xiii.  17. 

gg   Idem.  Thess.  v.  12. 

Idi  Idem.  Phil.  i.  l.»  1  Tim.  iii.  and  Titus  i.  v.  7. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  195 

but  he  supposes  a  higher  order  existed  ;  and  accounts 
Epaphroditus  to  have  been  the  apostle  of  the  Philip- 
pians.  But  Paul  denominates  him  only  their  messen- 
ger to  bring  him  supplies.  Titus  he  places  over  Crete, 
and  Timothy  over  the  churches  of  Asia  ;  and  thinks 
the  same  rules  which  were  given  to  presbyters,  were 
applicable  to  those  of  such  superior  rank,  who  after- 
wards took  the  name  bishop  exclusively,  and  left  the 
title  apostle  to  those  who  were  "  truly"  such.  But 
this  unsupported  conjecture  of  a  primitive  ordinary 
office,  superior  to  presbyters  in  every  church,  of 
which  no. one  has  ever  shown  a  syllable  of  proof,  badly 
accords  with  what  he  has  said  on  Titus,  first  chapter, 
of  the  "  custom"  that  there  should  be  one  bishop,  and  a 
plurality  of  presbyters  in  each  city. 

The  introduction  of  episcopacy  in  India,  shown  in 
each  of  these  histories,  is  substantially  the  same. 
Meropius,  a  Tyrian  philosopher,  following  the  recent 
example  of  Metrodorus,  wrent  with  his  two  nephews, 
Edesius  and  Frumentius,  into  India  in  pursuit  of  know- 
ledge. Having  explored  the  country,  they  thought  to 
return  in  a  vessel.  Landing  in  a  port  of  India  for  re- 
freshments, they  were  seized,  the  philosopher  slain, 
and  the  youths  made  captives.  They  served  the  king 
till  his  demise,  and  remained  with  the  queen  during 
the  minority  of  his  son.  Frumentius  sought  out  Ro- 
man traders  there,  with  whom,  and  some  natives,  he 
worshiped.  Emancipated,  they  returned  together 
unto  the  Roman  borders,  when  Edesius  went  home  to 
Tyre,  Frumentius  to  Alexandria,  unto  Athanasius. 
He  showred  him  the  prospect  in  India,  was  ordained 
bishop,  and,  returning  by  sea,  successfully  planted  the 
gospel  in  India."  In  the  first  apology  of  Athanasius  to 
Constantius,  he  complains  that  the  emperor  had  writ- 
ten to  Atzanias  and  Sazamas,  the  governors  of  Auxu- 
mis,  to  send  Frumentius,  wdiom  Athanasius  had  or- 


»    Socrates,  lib.  i.  c.  19.     Sozomeu,  lib.  ii.  c.  24.     Thcod.  Hist. 
Eccles.  lib.  i.  c.  23. 


196  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

dained,  to  George,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  to  be  tried, 
or  instructed ;  and  requires  that  the  people  and  clergy 
should  become  Arians,  and  if  any  disobey,  they  must 
be  put  to  death.  If  this  be  the  same  Frumentius, 
Abyssinia  was  the  India  in  this  history,  for  Auxumis 
is  a  city  eastward  from  the  head  of  the  Nile,  and  to- 
wards the  sea.  But  there  are  reasons  against  that 
supposition.  Admitting  that  a  colony  of  the  Indi  set- 
tled in  Africa,  and  were  still  called  by  that  name;  yet 
the  country  to  the  south-east  of  Persia  at  the  period 
of  those  writers  was,  and  still  is,  India.1*  Also,  the 
youths  appear  to  have  gone  from  Tyre  unto,  and  re- 
turned from,  India  by  land.  Neither  of  the  historians 
mention  Auxumis,  or  appear  to  have  thought  of  Abys- 
sinia. They  allege,  there  was  a  king  in  India  not  sub- 
ject to  the  Romans,  but  the  letter  of  Constantius  is 
addressed  to  tzvo  governors,  and  requires  them  to  act 
in  a  style  suitable  to  their  being  his  subjects,  confer- 
ring upon  them  the  dignity  of  Roman  citizens.  So- 
crates speaks  of  the  India  to  which  Bartholomew  came, 
and  evidently  had  on  his  mind  the  account  given  by 
Eusebius,11  who  says,  that  Pantasnus  had  visited  the 
place  to  which  Bartholomew  went,  and  had  found  a 
Hebrew  copy  of  Matthew's  gospel  there;  neverthe- 
less, Socrates  asserts  that  the  Christian  religion  did 
not  enlighten  them  before  the  time  of  Conslantine.  Also, 
Sozomen  testifies,  that  the  priesthood  had  this  its  begin- 
ning in  India.mm  The  two  first  of  these  historians  dis- 
criminate between  a  nearer  and  an  ulterior  India, 
and  evidently  confine  these  occurrences  to  the  nearer; 
also,  according  to  Socrates,  Meropius  visited  the  same 
region  of  the  Indies,  which  Metrodorus  had  then  late- 
ly traversed.  But  Metrodorus  was,  on  his  return, 
robbed,  or  feigned  himself  to  have  been  robbed, 
by  Sapor,  king  of  the  Persians,  which  act  Constantine 

kfe   Athanasii  Opera,  p.  20. 
11    Euseb.  Hist.  Ecclcs.  lib.  v.  c.  20. 

,nm   H/utv  cT«  /rag*  Ivcfs/?  ngn-rum  7«f7»v  ar^tv  npy^y.      Sozom.lib. 
ii.  c.  24. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  197 

resented  and  made  it  a  matter  of  accusation,  which 
continued  such  in  the  reigns  of  Constantine  and  Ju- 
lian."11 The  return  of  Metrodorus  from  India  must 
therefore,  have  been  through  Persia ;  and  the  route 
of  the  young  men  being  the  same,  the  India,  here 
mentioned,  certainly  lay  in  the  East,  and  was  not 
Abyssinia.  These  and  other  reasons  seem  conclusive, 
that  the  accounts  are  of  two  Frumentius's,  and  if  so, 
then  the  period  of  the  commencement  of  episcopacy 
in  India,  is  fixed  to  have  been  in  the  fourth  century ; 
when  episcopacy,  as  established  by  the  canons  of  the 
council  of  Nice,  was  prevalent  every  where. 


mi  — «  Expeditionem  parans  in  Persas — ad  ultionem  praeterito- 
rum  vehementer  elatus  est." — Scil.  Julianus  Ammian  Marcell.  lib. 
xxxii.  c.  12.  Non  Julianum,  sed  Constantium  ardores  Parthicos 
succendisse  cum  Metrodori  mendaciis  avidius  acquiiscit. — Idem, 
lib.  xxv.  c.  4. 


2s 


SECTION    XXI. 

Leo  succeeded  Sixtus;  his  claim  of  Roman  superiority  because  they  pos. 
scssed  the  ashes  of  Peter;  and  might  expect  his  favor  still  Leo  at- 
tempted as  civil  authority  failed  to  view  the  ecclesiastical  power  founded  upon 
divine  right,  and  having  argued  Peter's  higher  commission,  sujyosed  kis 
apostolical  authority  still  to  remain,  and  to  be  devolved  on  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  But  the  first  councils  established  the  dignity  and  authority  of  the 
sees  by  those  of  the  cities  in  which  they  were.  To  secure  the  canons  of  the 
council  of  Nice  against  the  repeal  attempted  in  later  councils,  he  supposed 
them  inspired.  His  claim  of  appellative  jurisdiction  rejected  by  the  bishops 
of  Africa.  Actuated  by  pride  and  intolerance,  his  high  talents  and  popular- 
ity gave  him  great  advantages  in  establishing  the  papal  throne,  winch  it  was 
his  chief  aim  to  accomplish  by  every  means,  wrong  and  right.  Although  he 
failed  in  the  East  arid  Africa,  yet  he  succeeded  in  bringing  the  heathen  in- 
vaders of  the  Empire  in  Europe  all  under  the  spiritual  power  of 'the  bishop  of 
Ro?ne- 

Leo,  denominated  the  Great,  after  having  exercised 
the  office  of  archdeacon  of  Rome  during  the  term 
of  twenty  years,  was  elected  successor  to  Sixtus  the 
third,  A.  D.  440.  His  works  are  in  the  finest  style  of 
Latin ;  of  the  Greek  his  knowledge  was  defective.  3 
Possessing  unusual  qualifications  in  point  of  know- 
ledge, influence,  experience  and  eloquence,  he  evinced 
by  his  uniform  conduct  a  disposition  to  extend  the  pa- 
pal jurisdiction,  equally  by  courtly  address  or  daring 
enterprise,  truth  or  falsehood,  right  or  wrong,  to  the 
utmost  extreme. 

Having  claimed  and  held  an  unscriptural  superiority 
to  the  presbyters  of  Rome,b  and  thereby  the  closest  in- 

a  — injungO' — ut  universa  facias — in  Latinumtranslata,  at  in  nulla 
parte  actionum  (scil:  concilii  Chalcedonensis)  dubitare  possimus. 
Leon:  ep.  90. 

b  Etius,  ab  officio  archidiaconalus  per  speciem  provectionis  {scil. 


THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,   &C.  199 

timacy  with  the  pontificate,  through  a  term  of  twelve 
years  prior  to  the  elevation  of  Sixtus,  his  talents  being 
also  occasionally  had  in  requisition  by  the  Emperor,  in 
promotion  of  the  public  weal,  he  must  have  concurred 
in  the  craft  and  violence  displayed  by  that  bishop  in 
retaining  the  diocess  of  Illyricum,  contrary  to  a  canon 
of  the  council  of  Ephesus  of  441.c 

Because  Rome  was  declining,  the  empire  divided  into 
two,  and  the  enemies  of  both  increasing  in  numbers, 
power,  and  military  skill,  it  was  attempted  by  Leo  to 
render  the  claim  of  ecclesiastical  precedence  more 
permanent,  by  founding  it  on  sacred  authority.  The 
superior  dignity  of  the  Roman  see  was  therefore  al- 
leged to  have  arisen  from  a  higher  commission  given 
to  the  Apostle  Peter,  whose  bones,  left  in  that  metro- 
polis, perpetuated  the  right  of  supreme  authority, 
whatsoever  might  be  the  diversity  of  the  merits  of  the 
bishops  in  the  seat  itself.  Peter  being  ever  an  apostle, 
and  still  having  by  an  ubiquity  of  presence  the  pastoral 
care  of  the  whole  church,  has  a  more  special  regard 
for  his  favorite  church  where  his  body  sleeps,  and  in- 
tercedes for  them  by  his  prayers  in  heaven.d  And 
therefore  the  representative  of  Peter  has  precedence 
of  all  bishops  in  the  churche  universal.  Such  dialecti- 
cal skill  had  not  been  attained  by  the  bishops  of  the 
first  general  council  of  Nice,  for  they  confirmed  by 
'  their  canons  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  of  Alexan- 

ad  presbyteratuni)  amovetur.  Leon.  op.  133.  Qui  primus  fuerit 
ministrorum  et  a.  Pontificis  latere  non  recedit,  injuriam  putat  si 
presbyter  ordinetur.     Hieron.  ez.  48, 

c  Council  Ephes.  can.  vii. 

d  — cui  ter  dixit  "pasce  oves  meas:"  quod  nunc  procul  dubio  fa- 
cit,  Sc  mandatum  Domini  pius  pastor  exequitur,  confirmans  nos  co- 
hortationibussuis,  et  pro  nobis  orare  non  cessans.  Leon.  op.  p.  4. 
Si  autem  hanc  pietatis  sux  curam  omni  populo  Dei,  sicut  creden- 
dum  est,  ubique  prxtendit,  quanto  magis  nobis  alumnis  suis  opem 
suam  dignatur  impendere,  apud  quos,  in  sacro  beata;  dormitionis 
thoro  requiescit.  Ibidem.  Etsi  enim  diversa  nonnunquam  sint 
merita  prxsulum,  tamenjura  permanent  sedium.  Idem,  p,  137. 

e  — cunctis  ecclesice  rectoribus  Petri  forma  praeponitur.   Leon. 

opp.  3. 


200  THE     PRIMITIVE     GOVERNMENT 

dria,  Rome,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  over  the  same  re- 
gions respectively,  which  they  had  gained  by  ancient 
custom/  Nevertheless  higher  objects  than  the  heresy 
of  Arius  convened  the  first  oecumenical  council ;  and 
their  decrees,  established  by  Constantine  as  the  su- 
preme law  of  the  empire,  effected,  as  he  had  designed,  a 
Christian  establishment  instead  of  the  Pagan,  and  con- 
formed to  its  features;  in  which  the  diocesses  of  the 
empire  had  their  patriarchs,  the  capitals  of  the  pro- 
vinces their  metropolitans,  and  the  cities  their  suffra- 
gan bishops ;  the  grade  of  civil  authority  in  each  of 
the  cities  becoming  the  standard  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
their  bishops ;  which  hierarchy  has  been,  as  far  as  the 
revolutions  of  the  nations  would  allow,  continued  into 
this  day.  The  second  general  council  did  therefore 
decree,  "that  the  bishop  of  Constantinople  should  have 
the  birthright  of  honor,  next  to  the  bishop  of  Rome, 
because  she  is  New  Rome."  Also  the  council  of 
Chalcedon,  in  number  the  fourth,  which  consisted  of 
more  than  six  hundred  bishops,  and  in  which  Leo  ap- 
peared by  his  legates,  have  shown  this  same  ancient 
opinion  of  the  origin  of  the  dignity  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  alleging  that  the  precedence  given  to  that 
church  had  been  because  the  city  was  imperial,^  and 
that  they,  for  the  same  reason,  gave  equal  privileges 
to  the  holy  see  of  New  Rome,  that  is  of  Constantino- 
ple.11 The  councils  of  Nice,  Constantinople,  and  Chal- 
cedon, had  consequently  no  idea  of  the  divine  right 
which  the  bishops  of  Rome  have  claimed,  to  sustain 
an  authority  likely  to  decay  with  the  declension  of  the 
dignity  of  their  city.  The  jurisdiction  given  to  the 
See  of  Constantinople  by  the  council  of  Chalcedon, 
over  Pontus,  Asia,  and  Thrace,  and  the  bishops  of 
those  diocesses,  who  were  among  the  Barbarians,  was 
violently  resisted  by  Leo,  but  ineffectually,  because 

f  Cone.  Nic.  can.  vl.  and  vii.      7a.*p%xix  tBn-cvIo  o-vvxBt;  i</]i—. 

S  Cone.  Chalced.  can.  xviii.     Sia.  la  /Zuo-t\euitv  7»v  ttca/v. 

1'  Cone.  Chalced.    can.   xviii.       tm   av1u>  o-%o?rui   KtvGv/xtvu — tirx 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  201 

founded  on  the  known  rule,  that  upon  a  division  of  a 
province  the  bishop  of  the  new  metropolis  took  rank, 
and  power,  as  a  metropolitan.  Thus,  in  the  diocess 
of  Thrace,  the  suffragan  of  Byzantium  had  become 
the  archbishop  of  Constantinople,  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  exarch  of  Heraclea,  when  Constantine  made  it  the 
seat  of  his  empire.  At  length  also  the  metropolitans 
of  the  respective  diocesses  of  Pontus  and  Asia  fell 
under  the  bishop  of  New  Rome. 

These  things  Leo  pronounced  wicked  attempts,  "ausus 
improbos,"  but  to  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Nice 
he  ascribed  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit.1  Ac- 
cordingly the  canons  of  the  six  hundred  and  thirty 
bishops  convened  at  Chalcedon  by  the  authority,  and 
ratified  by  the  decree  of  the  Emperor,  are  to  this  hour 
held,  by  the  western  church,  to  have  been  wholly  void 
of  authority,  except  as  to  matters  of  faith,k  because 
rejected  by  this  haughty  prelate,  who  chose  to  consi- 
der the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice  incapable  of  re- 
peal.1 •  Yet  Leo  found  no  scruples  in  entertaining,  and 
encouraging  appeals  to  himself  under  the  canons  of 
the  council  of  Sardica,  although  expressly  contrary  to 
the  fifth  canon  of  the  same  council  of  Nice,  "which 
had  given  the  jurisdiction  in  such  cases  to  the  provin- 
cial Synods.  Whatever  enhanced  the  powrer  of  the 
Roman  see,  was  therefore  valid  and  every  thing  of  a 
contrary  nature  void.  Both  the  cunning  and  disin- 
genuousness  of  this  bishop  were  opposed,  when  hav- 
ing ambitiously  besought  the  Emperor,  that  his  "vicars 
should  preside,"  in  the  council  of  Chalcedon,  "because 
he  learned,  not  without  sorrow,  that  some  of  the  bre- 
thren were  not  able  to  retain  Catholic  firmness,  against 
the  violence  of  misrepresentation,""1  he  imprudently 

*  — quas  per  218  antisiites  Spiritus  Sanctus  instituit. — Leon, 
ep.  79. 

k  Zonaras.  p.  92.     Binnius  Fartis  xi.c.vi. 

1  Si  quid  usquam  aliter  quam  illi  statuerunt,  prsesumitur,  sine 
cunctatione  cassatur.     Leon.  ep.  80. 

m  Quia  vero,  quiclam  de  fratribus  (quod  sine  dolore  non  didici- 


202  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

demanded  of  the  council,  in  his  letter  to  them,  pre- 
suming upon  the  Emperor's  conceding  it,  that  they 
should  consider  him  to  preside,  by  those  who  were 
sent  immediately  from  the  apostolic  seat,  and  to  be  pre- 
sent in  his  vicars;11  thus  claiming  from  the  bishops  the 
right  of  presiding  over  the  council,  as  the  prerogative 
of  his  see,  at  the  time  he  was  asking  the  very  same 
thing,  as  a  favor  from  the  Emperor,  and  thereby  ac- 
knowledging the  riant  to  be  in  him.  Nevertheless  the 
Emperor,  remembering  no  doubt  the  outrages  of  the 
council  at  Ephesus,  saw  it  to  be  proper,  to  direct  his 
own  representatives  to  hold  the  first  places,  and  the 
legates  the  second,  except  during  the  trial  of  Dios- 
corus,  from  which  the  imperial  commissioners  had 
been  instructed  to  retire. 

In  Christianity,  knowledge  being  practical,  and  truth 
holy,  they  are  not  possessed  so  long  as  the  heart  is 
adverse ;  but,  in  common  estimation,  orthodoxy  is 
attainable  by  the  disingenuous,  and  the  name  of  high 
theological  proficiency  becomes  the  reward  of  the 
ambitious.  Leo's  letter  to  Flavianus  exhibited  the 
views  of  the  incarnation  generally  entertained  by  the 
bishops  of  the  fourth  council,  and  was  both  an  evi- 
dence of  ingenuity,  and  an  instrument  of  popularity. 
Nevertheless,  some  of  them,  alleging  that  it  approached 
too  near  to  the  error  of  Nestorius,  refused  it;  until  his 
legates  consented  to  anathematize  that  heretic.  It 
was  not,  therefore,  adopted  by  the  council,  from  any 
idea  either  of  the  infallibility,  or  authority  of  Leo ;  and 
its  genera]  reception  in  both  empires,  chiefly  resulted 
from  the  acquiescence  of  the  council  of  Chalcedon  in 
its  correctness.  To  secure  its  adoption  by  the  council, 
he  gave  it  great  publicity.     He  sent  it  to  the  bishops 

mus)  contra  turbines  falsitatis  non  valuere  catholicam  tenere  con- 
stantiam,  priedictum — vice  raci  Synodo  convenit  prxsidere.  Leon, 
cp.  69. 

n  Qui  ab  apostolicasede  direct]  sunt,  me  Synodo  vestra  fraternitas 
existimet  prxsidere,  qui  nunc  in  vicariis  meis  adsum.  Leon, 
ep.  87. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  203 

of  Gaul,  that  their  approbation  might  accompany  it  in 
the  East,  but  their  answer  came  too  late.  The  ac- 
knowledgment, that  it  contained  the  expression  of 
their  faith, which  they  had  received  from  their  fathers,  ° 
had  neither  been  sought,  nor  made,  if  the  bishops  of 
Rome  had  been  then  deemed  exempt  from  error.  Yet 
he  replied,  when  "  the  holy  Synod  had  amputated  from 
the  church"  the  errors  against  which  he  had  asked 
their  influence,  "  that  it  had  been  by  his  humble  writ- 
ings, supported  by  the  authority  and  merit  of  his  Lord, 
the  most  blessed  apostle  Peter."1'  By  such  flourishes, 
for  which  that  saint  would  have  blushed,  could  they 
have  reached  Paradise,  did  Leo  claim  the  authority  of 
Peter,  knowing  that  his  office  terminated  with  his  life, 
and  that  he  was  neither  the  head  of  Christ's  church, 
nor  present  with  it,  and  that  he  had  derived  from  Pe- 
ter not  a  particle  of  authority,  more  than  Paul  and 
other  apostles  had  given  to  each  of  the  six  hundred 
and  thirty  bishops  who  composed  the  council. 

In  his  excellent,  but  craftily  designed  letter  to  the 
bishops  of  Mauritania  Cassariensis,  after  reciting  that 
many  had  been  chosen  from  the  laity  to  the  episcopal 
office,  he  is  pleased  to  say :  "  We  permit  them  to  hold 
the  received  priesthood,  without  prejudice  to  the  apos- 
tolic seat,  and  the  decrees  of  our  predecessors  and 
ourselves,  which  contain  the  salutary  enactment,  that 
no  one  of  the  laity,  though  supported  by  numerous 
votes,  shall  ascend  to  the  first,  second,  or  third  degree 
of  the  church,  before  he  has  arrived  at  that  favor 
through  the  legal  steps."q  Such  laws,  being  merely 
human,  and  founded  only  in  convenience,  may  be 


o  — Recognoverunt  fidei  suae  sensum,  et  ita  se  semper  ex  tradi- 
tione  paternit  tenuisse.     Leo  Opera,  p.  127. 

P  Sancta  nunc  Synodus  (humilitatis  nostrae  scriptis,  nuctoritate 
Domini  mei  beatisimi  Petri  apostoliet  merilo  robcratis)  amputavit, 
&c.     Idem.  p.  329. 

^  Leon,  epist  1. — Ex  laicis  ad  officium  episcopale  delecti  sunt. 
Sacerdotium  tenere  permiuimus,  non  prcejudicantes  apostolicx 
sedis  statutis,  &c. 


204  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

suspended  by  those  who  made  them :  but  had  they 
been  divine,  he  must  have  arrogated  a  power  of  dis- 
pensation never  given  to  a  mere  man.  His  excessive 
indulgence  proved,  nevertheless,  inadequate  to  secure 
to  him  the  jurisdiction  which  he  aimed  to  exercise 
over  the  churches  in  Africa ;  they  rejected  his  authori- 
ty, held  him  bound  by  the  canons,  and  would,  by  no 
means,  suffer  appeals  to  be  carried  to  the  bishop  of 
Rome. 

After  a  long  peace,  the  approach  of  Attila,  the  ter- 
ror of  both  empires,  drove  the  irresolute  Valentinian 
the  Third,  from  Ravenna  to  Rome,  where  it  was  re- 
solved to  send  an  embassy  to  meet  the  monarch  of  the 
Huns.  Leo  and  two  others  were  selected  to  negotiate, 
each  eminent  for  rank,  talents,  experience,  and  ad- 
dress. The  clerical  appearance,  deportment,  and  elo- 
quence of  the  bishop  are  said  to  have  produced  a  sen- 
sible impression  upon  the  barbarians  ;  with  which  also 
his  own  peculiar  circumstances  co-operated  to  give 
success.  His  subjects  were  not  universally  idolaters, 
for  many  Christians  had  been  carried  away  by  the 
Goths  from  the  Roman  provinces  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  fourth  century,  from  whom  they  had  gained  some 
knowledge  of  the  gospel.  From  these,  Ulphilas  had 
descended,  who  had  translated  portions  of  the  Scrip- 
tures into  their  language,  and  been  held  by  them  in  the 
highest  estimation. 

With  Genseric,  the  king  of  the  Vandals,  though  a 
Christian,  Leo  was  less  successful.  Invited  by  the 
injured  Eudoxia,  from  the  coasts  of  Africa,  he  crossed 
to  the  Tiber,  and  sacked  Rome  fourteen  days,  without 
opposition.  The  bishop  acted  a  noble  part,  going 
{jprth  with  his  clergy  to  meet  him,  he  saved  much  ef- 
fusion of  blood,  but  only  obtained  milder  terms  for  the 
suffering  citizens.  Wealth,  not  territory,  was  the  ob- 
ject of  the  invader,  who  possessed  accurate  informa- 
tion of  the  weakness  of  the  Romans,  and  the  confusions 
of  the  councils  of  the  men  who  were  in  power.  Though 
a  barbarian,  yet  professing  to  be  a  Christian,  he  could 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  205 

have  designed  no  injury  to  the  church.1'  These  em- 
barrassments of  the  empire  were,  in  each  instance,  by 
the  vigilance  and  address  of  Leo,  rendered  ancillary 
to  his  purposes  of  enlarging  the  authority,  and  extend- 
ing the  power  of  his  own  ecclesiastical  monarchy ; 
which,  it  is  probable,  both  Attila  and  Genseric  per- 
ceived to  be  as  capable  of  enhancing,  ultimately,  their 
own  influence,  as  that  of  the  Roman  empire. 

Leo  evinced  characteristic  adroitness  in  filling  va- 
cant sees  with  men  prompt  to  subserve  his  designs,  in 
extending  his  own  influence  by  intimidating  some,  and 
gaining  the  favor  of  others ;  and  in  removing  out  of 
his  way,  men  who  were  conscientiously  inflexible. 
Even  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  his  greatest  rival, 
was  under  his  direction,  so  long  as  Flavianus  lived, 
whom  he  ruled  by  friendship ;  but  over  his  successor, 
Anatolius,  he  could  not  maintain  the  ascendency  ;  he, 
nevertheless,  gained  some  verbal  concessions  from 
him,  not  an  abandonment  of  jurisdiction,  by  his  in- 
fluence on  Marcian  and  his  empress.  He  gave  ready 
audience  to  complaints  against  patriarchs,  metropoli- 
tans, and  inferior  bishops,  thereby  extending  his  juris- 
diction, under  the  pretext  of  administering  justice. 
His  favorable  standing  with  the  emperors,  both  of 
Rome  and  Constantinople,  which  he  so  industriously 
cultivated,  and  his  unremitting  communications  with 
the  eastern  bishops  by  letters  and  messengers,  were 
advantageous  to  the  cause  of  orthodoxy  against  the 
heresy  of  Eutyches  and  Dioscorus;  but  all  were  in- 
sufficient to  secure  to  the  Roman  see  any  authority  in 
Thrace,  Asia,  Palestine,  and  Egypt,  whatever  may 
have  been  alleged  by  modern  writers  to  the  contrary 
notwithstanding.  The  supineness  of  the  wretched 
Valentinian  the  Third,  allowed,  during  his  feeble  reign, 

r  Genseric  was  an  Arian,  and  persecuted  the  orthodox  bishops 
in  Africa  with  relentless  fury.  He  took  away  the  golden  table  and 
candlesticks  which  had  been  brought  to  Rome  from  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem;  and  also  the  spoils  of  paganism  belonging'  to  the  capi- 
tol, 

T 


206  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

ample  scope  to  the  ambition  of  this  bishop.  Aries  was 
the  eye  of  Gaul,  and  her  bishop,  because  the  exarch  of 
the  seven  provinces  of  Narbonne,  was  a  Mordecai  to 
Leo.  Hilary,  the  envied  rival,  had  deposed  Celido- 
nius  from  the  episcopal  grade.  The  discarded  bishop 
received  countenance,  and  was  allowed  to  officiate  at 
Rome.  Hilary  also  came  to  the  capital  of  the  empire, 
and,  after  visiting  the  tombs,  called  on  Leo,  and  com- 
plained, that  bishops  deposed  in  Gaul  were  allowed  to 
exercise  their  ministry  at  Rome ;  but  whilst  he  alleged 
it  to  be  scandal,  he  said  he  did  not  come  to  accuse. 
After  affirming  the  propriety  of  his  own  conduct,  and 
disregard  of  the  menaces  of  Leo,  he  returned  to  Aries ; 
but  sent  a  priest  and  two  bishops  to  Leo,  with  suitable 
instructions.  The  answer  which  he  received  from  the 
prefect  of  Rome,  insinuates  that  Leo  was  governed 
by  pride,  and  actuated  by  intolerance.  Leo  well 
knew  that  he  could  not  canonically  receive  the  com- 
plaint of  Celidonius,  but  he  was  determined  to  subju- 
gate the  see  of  Aries.  The  success  of  the  African 
churches,  in  combatting  his  claim  of  appellate  juris- 
diction, had  probably  excited  him  to  efforts  more  vio- 
lent in  extending  his  jurisdiction  in  Europe.  But  the 
unrelenting  cruelty  which  he  practised  against  the  in- 
genuous and  excellent  Hilary,  because  he  opposed  the 
unjust  extension  of  the  power  of  the  Roman  see,  is  not 
atoned  by  the  canonization  of  the  name  of  Hilary. 
And  it  excites  disgust  to  see  Leo  pronouncing  the 
memory  of  him  blessed,5  when  out  of  his  way,  whom, 
whilst  living,  he  had  reviled,  in  his  letter  to  the  bishops 
of  Vienne,  as  the  vilest  of  men. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  century,  the  Roman 
empire  was  severed  into  two.  Before  its  termination, 
the  Western  fell  wholly  into  the  hands  of  the  barba- 
rians. The  Ostrogoths  possessed  Italy,  the  Huns 
Pannonia,  the  Franks  Gaul,  the  Visigoths  Spain,  the 
Vandals  Africa,  and  the  Saxons  England.  The  policy 

s  Defuncto  Sacrse  mcmorix  Hilario.     Epist.  50. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  207 

of  Leo  aimed  to  secure  to  the  bishop  of  Rome  the  ec- 
clesiastical pre-eminence  which  had  been  incident  to 
the  imperial  purple  as  Pontifex  Maximus,  but  nominal- 
ly abandoned  by  Constantine,  and  the  Christian  empe- 
rors. His  efforts  in  the  Eastern  empire,  and  in  Africa, 
were  fruitless.  In  the  West,  his  successors,  following 
his  steps,  ultimately  prevailed.  The  barbarian  chiefs, 
well  knowing  the  power  and  influence  of  the  Christian 
clergy,  even  among  their  own  tribes,  willingly  trans- 
ferred to  them  the  same  profound  respect  which  had 
been  yielded  to  their  idolatrous  priests.  Thus  each  of 
the  kingdoms  which  arose  in,  and  superseded  the  Eu- 
ropean portion  of  the  Western  empire,  not  only  adopt- 
ed and  established  the  Christian  religion,  but  with  sur- 
prising passivity  subjugated  themselves  to  the  usurped 
authority  of  the  hierarchy  of  Rome. 

Our  purpose  being  to  ascertain  the  primitive  gov- 
ernment of  the.Christian  church,  as  it  was  left  by  the 
apostles  and  evangelists  ;  and,  in  order  to  the  right 
interpretation  of  the  sacred  word,  first  to  know  from 
facts  the  additions  which  have  been  made  since  their 
days,  that  we  may  exclude  them  from  any  part  in  such 
interpretation,  it  is  unnecessary  to  continue  an  unin- 
terrupted investigation  of  its  history,  lower  than  unto 
the  period  when  the  Western  church  was  fully  estab- 
lished in  Europe. 


SECTION    XXII. 

Separatists  from  the  Western  church  prior  to  the  Protestant  Reformation. — 
The  Piedmontese  were  in  the  Latin  church  in  817. — Their  archbishop. 
Claude,  lived  and  died  in  connexion  with  the  Catholics. — Had  lishops,  after 
their  separation,  who  were  denominated  Seniors  or  Ancients. — Perrin  was 
a  follower  of  Waldo,  and  incredible  as  to  historical  facts  before  his  day. — 
The  Waldenses  of  Bohemia  and  Moravia  preferred  the  doctrines  and  wor- 
ship of  the  Eastern  church,  but  were  obliged  to  yield  to  the  persecutions  of 
the  Latin. — Their  seniors  or  elders  were  superintendents  or  bishops  in  the 
modern  sense. — Tlie  Waldenses  of  France  were  the  followers  of  Peter 
Waldo  and  others,  who  adopted  the  ancient  discipline  of  the  evangelical 
churches  in  the  valleys  of  Piedmont. 

Had  this  people,  prior  to  the  Reformation,  an  order 
of  ecclesiastical  officers,  who  were  mute  presbyters, 
or  lay  elders  ?  This  is  the  subject  of  the  following 
investigation. 

That  a  secluded  Christian  people  had  inhabited 
either  the  valleys  of  the  Alps,  or  the  forests  of  Ger- 
many, from  the  days  of  the  apostles,  without  connex- 
ion either  with  the  Roman  or  Greek  church,  has  been 
often  asserted,  but  never  shown.  The  people  of  Pied- 
mont, and  those  of  Bohemia,  have,  with  justice, 
claimed  an  existence,  respectively,  prior  to  the  time  of 
Waldo.  His  followers  flying  from  persecution  in  the 
south  of  France,  have  often  found  sanctuary  with 
both ;  and  all  of  them  have  been  persecuted  under 
papal  bulls  made  against  the  Waldenses.  But  whilst 
a  similarity  of  doctrines  obtained  among  them,  they 
lived  under  different  civil  and  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ments; their  creeds,  articles,  confessions,  and  disci- 
pline, though  in  substance  allied,  were  not  identically 
the  same.     To  escape  the  confusion  which  exists  in 


THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,    &C.  209 

the  histories  of  the  Waldenses,  this  name  must  be  used 
only  for  the  followers  of  Waldo,  amalgamated  as  they 
are  with  the  orthodox  of  Albi,  and  the  consideration 
of  them  postponed  to  the  successive  accounts  of  the 
Piedmontese  and  Bohemians. 


THE    PIEDMONTESE. 

Piedmont,  named  from  the  valleys  of  the  Alps,  & 
pede  montium,  was  subject  to  the  Lombards,  from  the 
year  568,  until  774,  when  Charlemagne  destroyed  the 
monarchy.  It  constituted  a  part  of  the  German  em- 
pire from  that  period  until  its  dismemberment  in  888. 
From  thence  till  919,  all  Italy  was  in  confusion.  In 
936,  Otho  conquered  Italy,  and  the  valleys  of  the  Alps 
remained  under  German  princes  till  1137,  when  they 
became  the  property  of  the  house  of  Savoy  ;  who  were 
counts  till  1416,  dukes  till  1713,  and  afterwards,  by 
the  acquisition  of  Sicily,  kings  till  1796. 

In  these  valleys  the  gospel  was  planted  at  an  early 
period ;  and  being  a  frontier  of  Italy,  their  religious 
government  was  that  of  the  peninsula.  But  remote 
from  the  vortex  of  corruption,  they  tardily  received 
innovations.  They  were  still  a  constituent  part  of  the 
Latin  church  in  the  year  817,  and  subject  to  the  reli- 
gious government  of  that  age,  which  was  episcopal. 
Claude,  in  815,  had  been  promoted  to  be  arch-bishop 
of  Turin,  the  principal  city  of  Piedmont,  by  Lewis  the 
Meek,  the  son  of  Charlemagne  and  emperor  of  the 
West.  But  whilst  Claude  submitted  to  the  ecclesias- 
tic supremacy,  he  denied  the  orthodoxy  of  the  Pope. 
In  the  council  of  Frankfort,  794,  he  had  been  active 
against  image-worship,  and  had  seconded  the  empe- 
ror's wishes  to  bring  over  pope  Adrian  the  First  from 
the  errors  of  the  second  Nicene  council  of  786. 
When,  in  823,  this  excellent  man  was  accused  of  inno- 
vation, because  he  ordered  the  images  to  be  cast  out 
of  his  churches,  he  declared.  "  that  he  taught  no  new 

t  2 


210  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERXBIEXT 

sect,  but  kept  himself  to  the  pure  faith."  The  truth 
was  supported  during  his  life,  in  Piedmont,  against 
the  corruptions  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches.  He 
lived  and  died  the  arch-bishop  of  Turin,  in  full  con- 
nexion with  the  Catholic  church.  Nor  did  the  Pied- 
montese  depart  from  the  communion  of  that  church, 
"  so  long  as  she  did  not  attempt  to  force  them  to  em- 
brace her  errors."  The  Piedmontese  churches  were 
episcopal  before  and  during  the  life  of  Claude,  His 
followers  were  persecuted  by  his  successors  in  office, 
but  not  immediately ;  for  Claude  lived  nearly  to  the 
dismemberment  of  the  German  empire,  after  which, 
the  political  confusions  of  Italy  presented  some  defence 
against  persecution,  till  the  conquest  by  Otho.  As 
this  period  was  long  before  Dominic  and  his  inquisition, 
it  is  not  probable  that  the  principles  and  doctrines  of 
Claude  produced  a  separation  before  the  middle  of  the 
tenth  century.  Sir  Samuel  Morland,  who  was  sent  by 
Cromwell  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  in  1658,  to  mitigate 
his  persecution  of  the  Piedmontese  reformers,  has  ob- 
served, that  Claude  left  the  lamp  of  his  doctrine  to  his 
disciples,  and  they  to  their  successive  generations  in 
the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.  The  precise  era  of  their 
separation  from  the  Catholic  church,  we  have  not 
found ;  but  no  persecution  appears  to  have  been  sus- 
tained by  them  under  the  German  princes  to  whom 
they  were  subject,  till  1137.  If,  indeed,  that  oldest 
document,  which  is  furnished  by  Perrin,  and  by  Mor- 
land, purporting  to  be  a  confession  of  their  faith  in 
fourteen  articles,  and  which  they  place  at  1120,  were 
so  old,  that  would  prove  a  separation,  before  they  came 
under  the  house  of  Savoy.  But  though  in  1146,  they 
were  persecuted,  and  some  of  them  fled  into  Bohemia, 
there  is  neither  proof  nor  probability  shown,  that 
those  articles  were  four  centuries  before  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  twelfth  was  made  against  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  which  we  should  not  expect  before 
the  council  of  Lateran,  in  1215,  or  at  the  earliest,  in 
1160.     The  ninth,  expressly  against  the  error  of  pur- 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  211 

gatory,  which  would  seem  to  have  been  unnecessary, 
before  the  council  of  Florence,  in  1438.  When  these 
articles  were  made,  they,  no  doubt,  had  still  their 
bishops  and  priests,  as  there  is  not  a  word  in  them 
concerning  church  government.  The  followers  of 
Claude  must  have  retained  episcopal  ordination.  The 
monk  Rainerus  names  Belazinanza  of  Verona,  and 
John  De  Luggio,  as  eminent  bishops  of  the  Waldenses 
about  1250;  and  is  quoted  by  Pen-in,  as  having  writ- 
ten of  the  Piedmontese,  in  his  account  of  heretics,  that 
"  they  had  a  greater  bishop,  and  two  followers,  whom 
he  called  the  elder  son,  and  the  younger,  and  a  deacon; 
that  he  laid  his  hands  upon  others,  with  sovereign 
authority,  and  sent  them  where  he  would,  like  a  pope." 
This  Perrin  denominates  an  "  imposture."  But  the 
monk  relates  things  of  his  own  day,  and  his  means  of 
knowing  the  truth  were  better  than  those  of  Perrin. 

The  latter  was  averse  to  episcopacy,  wished  to 
represent  the  Piedmontese  and  the  reformers  in 
France,  as  the  same  sect ;  and  has  actually  concealed 
the  episcopate  of  Stephen,  the  last  bishop  of  the  Aus- 
trian Waldenses.  What  Perrin  has  gleaned  in  oppo- 
sition to  Rainerus,  rather  supports  him.  He  says, 
from  Morel  and  Masson,  of  Provence,  who  were  divid- 
ed from  the  Piedmontese  only  by  the  mountains,  and 
were  more  nearly  allied  to  them  than  those  of  Dau- 
phine  :  "  The  money  that  is  given  us  by  the  people  is 
carried  to  the  aforesaid  general  council,  and  is  deliv- 
ered in  the  presence  of  all ;  it  is  then  received  by  the 
ancients,  and  part  thereof  is  given  to  those  that  are 
travellers,  or  way-faring  men,  according  to  their  ne- 
cessities, and  part  thereof  unto  the  poor."  These  an- 
cients were  clerical  men,  and  the  seniors,  or  bishops, 
who  ordained  their  preachers,  like  Stephen,  the  last  of 
the  Austrian  Waldensian  bishops,  from  whom  the  Uni- 
tas  fratrum  now  hold  their  succession.  The  name  bish- 
op was  generally  substituted  by  some  other  word,  as 
senior,  superintendent,  or  perhaps  guide,  and  leader; 
but  was  understood  by  Rainerus.     The  may-faring 


212  THE     PRIMITIVE     GOVERNMENT 

men,  who  received  an  annual  support  from  the  people, 
through  the  hands  of  these  bishops,  were  the  travelling 
preachers  whom  they  sent  "where  they  thought 
good,"  to  different  and  distant  places  in  the  countries 
of  Europe,  who  were  persecuted  every  where  under 
the  name  of  Vallenses,  and  afterwards  as  Waldenses. 
What  the  form  of  the  ecclesiastical  government  of  the 
Piedmontese  came  to  be,  is  uncertain.  Their  preachers 
were  called  barbes  and  pastors.  Their  guides  or 
leaders,  if  they  were  not  the  same  with  the  ancients  or 
bishops,  were  laymen  of  prudence,  to  direct  the  peo- 
ple, who  lived  under  a  Catholic  and  persecuting  civil 
government,  whose  fury  they  were  often  obliged  to 
shun  by  fleeing  to  the  mountains. 

The  assertion,  that  "  the  office  of  ruling  elders  as 
retained  in  their  churches,  is  recognized  in  a  number 
of  places  in  Perrin,"  we  cannot  find  supported,  and  be- 
lieve to  be  founded  in  mistake.  One  place  has  been 
pointed  out  in  his  works,  (ch.  4,  p.  49,)  to  show  that 
there  was  a  synod,  in  which  ministers  and  elders  con- 
vened, "long  before  the  time  of  Luther."  But  it 
proves  to  have  been  after  the  deaths  of  Luther,  Me- 
lancthon,  Bucer,  Zuinglius,  Peter  Martyr,  and  Cran- 
mer.  We  do  not  wonder  that  such  mistakes  should 
have  been  made,  in  reading  the  confused  story  of  John 
Paul  Perrin.  lie  never  lived  either  under  the  civil 
or  ecclesiastical  government  of  Piedmont ;  he  was  a 
follower  of  Peter  Waldo;  lived  at  Lyons,  and  dated 
his  works  in  1018.  He  is  a  loose  writer,  without  any 
talent  for  discrimination,  and  his  credibility  has  lately 
been,  and  perhaps  deservedly,  impeached  by  the  Rev. 
William  Jones. 

Morland  mentions  a  manuscript  dated  in  1587, 
seventeen  years  after  the  synod  last  spoken  of,  which 
speaks  of  annual  councils,  and  of  one,  at  which  there 
were  one  hundred  and  forty  barbes  ;  but  no  elders  are 
said  to  have  been  present.  We  have  found  no  synods 
among  them  before  the  Reformation.  On  the  12ih 
September,  1532,  after  the  Augsburg  confession  had 


OF    CHRISTIAN"    CHURCHES.  213 

been  made,  and  the  protest  signed,  and  after  the  peo- 
ple of  the  valleys  knew  that  the  Waldenses  of  Dau- 
phine  and  Provence  had  sent  their  pastors,  George 
Morel  and  Peter  Masson,  into  Germany,  to  confer 
with  GEcolampadius  and  Bucer,  they  held  a  general 
meeting  at  Angrogne,  to  hear  the  letters  of  those  re- 
formers, and  then  entered  into  articles  accordant  with 
the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation.  But  even  there  we 
find  no  mention  of  ruling  elders  or  lay  presbyters. 
The  intermediate  unscriptural  order  did  come  in  at 
the  Reformation,  but  we  have  found  no  trace  of  it  be- 
fore it.  The  resort  to  the  history  of  the  Piedmontese 
to  prove  lay  presbyters,  appears,  therefore,  to  be  en- 
tirely unavailing. 


THE  WALDENSES  OF  BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA. 

In  the  ninth  century,  the  ambition  of  the  rival  pon- 
tiffs of  Rome  and  Constantinople,  occasioned  efforts 
to  be  made  by  both  the  Western  and  Eastern  churches, 
to  plant  the  gospel  under  their  respective  standards 
on  the  banks  of  the  Danube.  The  sister  of  the  king  of 
the  Bulgarians  became,  whilst  a  captive  at  Constanti- 
nople, a  Christian.  He  sent  thither  for  missionaries, 
and  obtained  Cyril  and  Methodius,  Pastors,  also, 
afterwards  went  from  Rome  into  Bulgaria.  The  at- 
tempt of  the  Roman  see  in  the  tenth  century  to  render 
the  Bohemians  subject  to  their  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment, produced  resistance  and  persecution ;  but  their 
ritual  was  at  length  received  upon  the  express  condi- 
tion, that  it  should  be  in  the  Sclavonian  language.  In 
this  century,  evangelical  impressions  were  made  on 
the  Hungarians,  Dalmatians,  Polanders,  Danes,  and 
others.  The  duke  of  Bohemia,  Bolislaus,  was  a  Chris- 
tian of  the  Latin  church ;  his  daughter,  the  wife  of  the 
duke  of  Poland,  persuaded  her  husband,  about  965,  to 
become  a  Christian.  But  idolatry  prevailed  near  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Baltic.     In  Pomerania,  Chris- 


214  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

tianity  was  not  tolerated  till  the  arms  of  Otho  had 
prevailed  in  1126.  The  people  of  Bohemia  were 
averse  to  the  Romish  rites,  preferring  those  of  the 
Eastern  church,  but  in  the  twelfth  century  their  zeal 
began  to  succumb  to  persecution.  In  1146,  some  of 
the  Vallenses,  fleeing  from  Roman  persecution  in 
Piedmont,  sought  refuge  among  them.  That  Peter 
Waldo  died  in  Bohemia  in  1179,  is  not  supported. 
The  Bohemian  Christians,  whilst  with  the  Greek 
church,  can,  with  neither  reason  nor  propriety,  be  sup- 
posed to  have  had  lay  presbyters,  for  none  such  are 
found  in  that  church  ;  and  so  far  as  the  influence  of 
the  Latin  church  prevailed  with  them,  it  could  have 
had  no  tendency  to  produce  an  office,  equally  foreign 
to  its  principles,  and  unknown  in  its  government.  Du- 
ring the  reigns  of  the  native  kings  of  Bohemia,  which 
terminafed*  in  1305,  and  until  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Charles  the  Fourth,  which  began  in  1346,  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  Western  churches  had  been  generally 
adopted  in  Bohemia.  The  great  number  of  orthodox 
professors,  said  to  have  been  in  Bohemia  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  must  be  misrepresentation.  The 
Catholic  errors  were  afterwards  resisted  by  the  pious 
confessors,  Conrad  Stickner,  John  Militsh,  and  Mat- 
thew Janowsky,  all  of  whom  died  near  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  by  John  Huss.  The  latter 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  Wickliff,  was  burned  in  1415, 
and  is  accounted  the  founder  of  the  society  of  Unitas 
fratrum ;  but  the  name  and  compact  of  union  obtained 
not,  till  after  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
These  have  been  called  also  Waldenses,  from  their 
union  with  those  of  Austria.  These  being  episcopal, 
there  was  still  neither  place  for,  nor  the  existence  of, 
lay  presbyters."     In  1432,  the  council  of  Basil  satisfied 


*  Poslea  iidem,  scilicet  Fralres  Bohemi,  seu  Unt'tas  fratrum  cum 
reliqnis  quibusdam  Waldensium,  in  confiniis  Moravix  et  Austria 
agentibus,  conjungendi,  imitate  inter  cos  ac  confoederatione  inita. 
Unde  commune  Bohemis   Fratribus    Waldensium    noinen,"   &c. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  215 

the  Calixtins,  who  contended  only  for  the  cup,  and 
terminated  the  war  which  followed  the  death  of  Huss  ; 
but  his  other  followers,  the  Taborites,  were  not  recon- 
ciled. In  1438,  popery  gained  the  ascendency,  by  the 
establishment  of  the  Austrian  line  over  Bohemia  and 
Hungary ;  and  the  termination  of  the  Greek  empire 
by  the  Turks,  in  1453,  prevented  further  efforts  to  re- 
turn to  the  Greek  church.  Being  cut  off  from  ordina- 
tion both  from  the  Roman  and  Greek  churches ;  in 
14G7,  the  Brethren  obtained  episcopal  ordination,  for 
certain  men  chosen  to  be  seniors,  superintendents,  or 
bishops,  from  Stephen,  who  was  the  last  bishop  of  the 
Austrian  Waldenses,  (Vallenses,)  and  was  burned  at 
Vienna  in  1468. 

This  excellent,  evangelical,  and  persecuted  people, 
had  more  respect  for  sound  doctrines,  than  scrupulous 
correctness  in  the  matter  of  church  government.  Their 
prejudices  have  always  been  for  the  episcopal  govern- 
ment, even  whilst  groaning  under  the  oppressions  of 
diocesan  episcopacy.  From  the  commencement  of 
their  new  episcopate,  which  was  about  fifty  years  be- 
fore the  Reformation,  they  had  eight  kinds  of  officers; 
elders,  almo?iers,  inspectors  of  buildings,  ministers,  aco- 
luths,  (candidates  for  the  ministry,  who  read  homi- 
lies,) deacons,  who  preach,  presbyters,  or  priests,  who 
administer  ordinances,  and  bishops,  whom  they  denomi- 
nate seniors.**       The  confession  of  faith,  which   this 


"  Patet  veneratas  eas  ecclesias  suos  episcopos,  vel  super-atten- 
dentes,  primos  cum  ordinis  turn  potestatis  praerogotiva;  scalam 
ministerii  suis  gradibus  distinxisse,"  &.c.  Frederici  Spanhemii 
Hist.  Christ.  Secul.  xv.  Lemma  vii. 

b  Perrin,  p.  64,  says:  "  At  the  time  when  the  doctrine  of  John 
Huss  was  received  and  entertained  there,  the  ministers,  elders,  and 
Protestants  of  Bohemia  say,"  &c.  And  in  p.  66,  speaking-  of  the 
martyrdom  of  the* Austrian  Waldensian  bishop  Stephen,  he  calls 
him  "an  elderly  man."  In  p.  19,  he  says,  Aldegonde  relates,  that 
"There  was  a  certain  man  called  Bartholomew,  born  at  Carcas- 
sone  (in  France)  who  founded  and  governed  the  churches  in  Bul- 
garia, Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  Hungary,  and  ordained  ministers," 
&c.     Perrin  must  have  known,  that  these  elders  and  clergymen 


216  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

people  first  presented  to  Ladislaus  in  1508,  and  pre- 
sented amplified,  to  Ferdinand#  in  1535,  and  which 
received  a  preface  from  the  pen  of  Luther,  does  men- 
tion "  elders"  but  expressly  as  ordainers  of  ministers, 
who  were,  therefore,  the  seniors  before  mentioned. 
Their  elders,  who  were  inferior  to  the  almoners  and 
inspectors,  were  laymen,  not  presbyters.  If  their  dea- 
cons were  preachers,  their  presbyters,  who  were  of  a 
superior  order,  could  not  have  been  laymen ;  if  also, 
both  were  inferior  to  their  sejiiors,  being  ordained  by 
them,  these  were  their  bishops.  It  is  very  strange 
that  a  proof  of  the  imaginary  order  of  lay  presbyters 
should  be  attempted  to  be  brought  from  a  church, 
which  held,  and  still  holds,  not  only  the  presbyters, 
but  the  deacons  of  the  apostolic  times  to  have  been, 
by  the  nature  of  their  offices,  preachers  of  the  word. 


THE  WALDENSES  IN  FRANCE. 

The  south  of  France  was  the  country  of  the  Wal- 
denses,  properly  so  called.  A  few  of  the  persecuted 
followers  of  Claude,  the  Vaudois,  Vallenses,  or  Pied- 
montese,  had  fled  over  to  Provence,  and  enjoyed 
peace.  Among  these,  Joseph  preached  with  success ; 
and  in  Languedoc,  in  the  twelfth  century.  The  Jo- 
sephists  were  prior  to  Waldo.  Peter  Bruis  taught  in 
the  same  strain,  in  the  latter  place,  in  1130,  and  was 
burnt  at  St.  Giles.  Henry  was  the  successor  of  Bruis. 
Their  followers  were  called  Peter  Brussians,  and 
Henricians.  In  the  same  region,  Arnold,  and  Esperon, 
a  priest,  in  the  same  century,  opposed  the  errors  of  the 
Romanists.  All  who  held  the  doctrines  of  these  re- 
formers, and  who  lived  near  Albi,  were  called  Albi- 


were  bishops,  but  writing-  a  century  after  the  Reformation,  he 
wishes  to  cast  a  veil  over  the  government  of  those  churches.  What 
confidence  can  be  placed  in  such  a  writer? 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  217 

genses  ;  a  name,  by  which  all  of  this  faith,  who  lived 
westward  of  the  Rhone  in  France,  were  called,  as 
others  on  the  east  of  that  river  were  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  Waldenses.c  These  were  so  called  from 
Peter  Waldo,  a  layman  of  talents,  learning,  and  piety ; 
who  abandoning  merchandise  at  Lyons,  began  to 
preach  the  gospel  in  1160.  His  success  produced  the 
anathema  of  pope  Alexander  the  Third,  against  him 
aud  his  followers.  These  fled  over  the  Rhone  into 
Provence,  into  Piedmont  and  into  Germany,  and  Wal- 
do, after  three  years  concealment,  fled  into  Picardy, 
and  afterwards  to  other  places.  They  who  took  re- 
fuge in  Piedmont,  were  denied,  by  the  house  of  Savoy, 
that  toleration,  which  the  natives  of  the  valleys  en- 
joyed, holding  similar  doctrines.  The  Waldenses,  in 
the  south  of  France,  multiplied  in  concealment. 
From  1305  to  1362,  Avignon  was  the  seat  of  rival 
popes,  by  which  circumstance  they  were  greatly  ex- 
posed. In  1380  and  1393,  they  were  furiously  perse- 
cuted. In  1478,  Lewis  XL  directed  letters  to  the  gov- 
ernor of  Dauphine  for  their  relief,  but  in  1484,  those 
who  inhabited  the  valley  of  Loyse,  were  almost  literal- 
ly exterminated  by  the  arch-bishop  of  Ambrun.  The 
oldest  confession  of  faith  of  this  people,  may  be  found 
in  Bray's  Perrin,d  and  in  Sir  Samuel  Morland6  in  dif- 
ferent English  translations,  in  twelve  articles.  It  was 
furnished  by  Du  Molin,  and  had  been  made  at  some 
period  before  the  Reformation,  but  how  long  after  the 
death  of  Waldo,  is  not  known.  The  fifth  article  alone 
touches  the  subject  of  government ;  is  opposed  to  the 
Catholic  hierarchy,  but  neither  elders  nor  presbyters 
of  any  kind.  A  paper,  which  Sir  SamueF  denominates 
"  The  ancient  discipline  of  the  evangelical  churches  in 
the  valleys  of  Piedmont,"  Perrin,^  who  was  a  Wal- 

c  The  Paulicians  were  called  also  Albigenses,  because   con- 
demned by  a  council  held  at  Albi  in  1176. 
d  P.  2.  b.  1.  c.  xiii.  p.  24.  e  page  37—39. 

f  Page  72.  s  Book  v.  c.  vii. 

u 


218  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

densian,  gives  as  "  The  discipline  under  which  the 
Waldenses  and  Albigenses  lived."  It  is  allowed  by 
both  to  have  been  several  hundred  years  before  the 
Reformation.  In  it  purgatory,  transubstantiation, 
extreme  unction,  and  confirmation,  are  all  rejected. 

The  opinions  of  these  historians  of  facts  passed  be- 
fore their  day,  are  little  to  be  trusted — their  docu- 
ments alone  are  valuable.  In  this  discipline  are  con- 
tained, in  the  second  and  fourth  articles,  these  words : 
"  Amongst  other  privileges  which  God  hath  given  to 
his  servants,  he  hath  given  them  this,  to  choose  their 
leaders,  and  those  who  are  to  govern  the  people,  and 
to  constitute  ciders  in  their  charges,  according  to  the  di- 
versity of  the  work,  in  the  unity  of  Christ,  which  is 
clear  by  that  saying  of  the  apostle  in  the  epistle  to 
Titus,  chap.  1.  For  this  cause  Heft  thee  in  Crete,  that  thou 
shouldest  set  in  order  the  things  that  are  wanting,  and  or- 
dain elders  in  every  city  as  I  had  appointed  thee."  In  ar- 
ticle 5,  "  Rulers  and  elders  are  chosen  out  of  the  peo- 
ple, according  to  the  diversity  of  the  work  in  the  unity 
of  Christ,"  &c.  Perrin  omits  the  catechism,  which 
constitutes  the  fourth  article.  In  Bray's  translation, 
these  things  are  thus  rendered :  "  Amongst  other 
powers  and  abilities  which  God  has  given  to  his  ser- 
vants, he  hath  given  authority  to  choose  leaders  to 
rule  the  people,  and  to  ordain  elders  in  their  charges, 
according,"  &c.  "  We  choose  among  the  people 
rulers  and  elders  according  to  the  diversity  of  their 
employment,  in  the  unity  of  Christ."  Perrin  also  gives 
from  "  book  of  the  pastors,  George  Morel  and  Peter 
Masson,"  the  same  who  were  sent  from  Provence  into 
Germany  to  consult  the  reformers  in  1530,  the  like 
account :  "  Amongst  other  powers  which  God  hath 
given  to  his  servants,  it  belongs  to  them  to  choose 
guides  of  his  people,  and  elders  in  their  charges,  accord- 
ing," &c,  ut  supra.  By  elders  in  their  charges,  must 
have  been  intended  pastors,  who  were  elders  in  the 
Scriptural  sense.    They  certainly  had  pastors,  because 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  219 

Morel,  Masson,  and  Perrin  were  such,  and  the  flocks 
could  have  been  the  charges  of  no  others.  The  quo- 
tation from  the  epistle  to  Titus,  which  is  a  direction  to 
ordain  elders,  brought  as  an  authority  for  the  office, 
also  evinces  the  correctness  of  this  construction. 
The  terms,  constitute  and  ordain,  used  with  elders, 
and  not  with  rulers  and  leaders,  discover  an  additional 
proof,  that  the  elders  wrere  the  preachers  or  pastors  of 
the  churches ;  and  that  such  leaders  and  rulers,  being 
neither  said  to  be  constituted,  nor  ordained,  were  con- 
sequently not  elders  of  any  kind,  except  in  the  appel- 
lative sense.  The  single  question  on  these  passages 
must  be,  whom,  or  what  must  we  understand  by  the 
*'  leaders,  and  those  who  are  to  govern  the  people  ;" 
which  is  Morland's  translation  of"  Regidors  del  poble," 
the  words  of  the  discipline.  Perrin's  copy,  or  transla- 
tion, has  been  rendered  by  Bray,  "  leaders  to  rule  the 
people;"  and  the  expression  of  Morel  and  Masson 
are  translated  "  guides  to  the  people."  These  were, 
therefore,  under  every  view,  evidently  laymen,  chosen 
to  advise  and  support  the  people,  under  the  dread- 
ful persecutions  to  which  they  were  so  often  sub- 
jected. The  same  kind  of  prudent  men  were  selected 
also  among  the  Piedmontese,  for  the  same  purpose. 
If  Perrin  and  Morland  be  each  correct  in  their  title 
prefixed  to  this  discipline,  then  the  Waldenses  ob- 
tained it  from  the  Piedmontese.  Neither  in  the  val- 
leys of  the  Alps,  nor  in  France,  had  the  pious  presby- 
ters, who  were  ordained  over  their  congregational 
assemblies,  wisdom  or  experience  sufficient  to  guide 
such  multitudes,  under  the  pressure  of  persecutions 
scarcely  second  in  malevolence,  fury,  and  cruelty,  to 
any  that  have  been  in  the  world.  Unless  the  elders, 
mentioned  in  the  passage  quoted  by  them,  were 
preachers,  Titus  ordained  none  in  Crete ;  by  elders, 
therefore,  pastors  must  have  been  understood;  and 
they  seem  to  have  availed  themselves  of  the  other 
general  terms,  as  an  authority  for  the  choosing  of 


220  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,  &C. 

guides,  to  set  in  order  things  zvhich  u-ere  wanting ;  and 
save  them  from  that  extermination,  which  the  anti- 
Christian  hierarchy  ever  meditated,  and  unremittingly 
pursued  ,*  for  in  later  times  the  edict  of  Nantz  suffered 
the  scion  to  grow,  only  that,  by  the  nefarious  revoca- 
tion of  that  statute,  it  might  be  the  more  effectually 
extirpated. 


SECTION   XXIII. 


OF    OFFICES   AND   ORDINATIONS. 

The  Jewish  and  gospel  dispensations  commenced  with  immediate  inspi- 
ration. Legal  toleration  had  been  granted  to  the  Jews,  in  the  exer- 
cise of  their  own  religion,  it  was  necessary  that  the  apostles  should 
teach,  baptize,  and  ordain  as  they  did,  but  they  claimed  no  priesthood,  and 
ordained  officers  for  the  churches  they  erected,  bishops  or  presbyters,  one 
bench  for  everu  assembly,  and  deacons.  J\Iatlhias,  Paul,  and  Barnabas. 
There  are  no  evangelists  in  the  history  of  the  church,  except  the  first  extraor- 
dinary preachers.  The  reception  of  the  evangelists  depended  upon  the  re- 
commendations of  the  apostles.  Testimonies  of  Polycarp,  Clement,  Justin, 
Irenmus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Terlullian.  Letters  assigned  to  Ignatius, 
"Apostolical  Tradition."  Firmilian,  Cyprian,  fyc — Ordinary  officers  were 
presbyters  and  deacons,  and  there  were  but  two  ordinations.  The  ordination 
which  now  constitutes  a  modern  bishop,  originated  in  gradual  custom,first 
without  hands,  then  with,  and  now  rests  upon  canonical  authority,  and  is  no 
where  found  in  the  word  of  God. 

The  Mosaic  economy  terminated  with  the  death  of 
Christ,  who  was  a  minister  of  the  circumcision.  After 
his  resurrection,  he  commissioned  eleven  apostles,  to 
go  and  disciple  all  nations.  They  were  to  testify  the 
things,  which  they  had  seen  and  heard;  and  reveal  the 
truths,  which  should  be  suggested  to  their  minds  by 
the  Holy  Spirit.  Such  is  the  basis  of  all  present  au- 
thority for  evangelizing  the  world.  But  it  no  more 
follows,  that  any  regular  preacher  has  the  commission 
of  an  apostle  to  govern  the  general  church,  than  that 
he  possesses  the  gifts  of  such.  For  as  none  can  be 
strictly  apostles,  that  is,  immediately  instructed  and 
sent  by  Christ,  so  none  possess,  either  their  inspiration 
and  general  authority,  or  their  extraordinary  power. 

Under  the  theocracy,  commissions  were  by  conse- 
2v 


'Z22  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

cration,  with  imposition  of  hands.a  The  apostles  be- 
ing Jews,  and  tolerated  in  the  Roman  empire  only  as 
such,  were  guided  by  the  Spirit  to  baptize,  teach,  and 
ordain,  in  the  modes  to  which  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed. But  they  neither  claimed,  nor  exercised  a 
priesthood,  nor  considered  ordination  as  an  apostolical 
prerogative,  but  merely  as  a  duty,  incident  to  the 
greater  work  of  discipling  and  teaching. 

Whilst  many  justify  innovations  on  the  ground  of 
expediency,  not  a  few  have  thought,  that  a  right  has 
devolved  upon  the  church,  through  the  apostles,  of  go- 
vernment, discipline,  and  dispensing  ordinances.  The 
present  prevailing  forms  of  ecclesiastical  government, 
having  originated  since  the  days  of  the  apostles,  do  re- 
quire some  such  vindication ;  for  certainly  there  is  nei- 
ther apostolic  precept,  nor  example  for  any  ordination 
in  a  particular  church,  except  those  of  bishops  and  dea- 
cons ;  and  if  bishops  and  presbyters  be  the  same  office, 
the  additional  ordination,  whether  of  the  diocesan  bish- 
op, or  the  lay  presbyter,  finds  no  authority  in  the  word  of 
God.  But  if  the  church  possess  the  right  to  create  new 
officers,  and  to  transfer  to  them  the  government,  and 
rite  of  ordination,  this  exceeds  the  claim  of  infallibility, 
it  is  to  legislate  in  the  place  of  God. 

Matthias  was  elected,  separated  by  lot,  and  numbered 
with  the  apostles,  but  was  neither  personally  sent  by 
Christ,  nor  ordained  by  imposition  of  hands,  being  an 
apostle  only  in  the  appellative  sense,  as  was  Barnabas. 
The  first  ordination  was  of  seven  deacons  in  the 
church  at  Jerusalem,  chosen  by  the  people,  and  set 
apart  by  prayer,  and  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the 
apostles,  there  being  as  yet  no  presbytery.  When  the 
prophets  and  teachers  of  the  church  at  Antioch,  prayed 
and  imposed  their  hands  on  Saul  and  Barnabas,  they 
seemed  rather  to  have  given  a  testimony  of  their  con- 
currence to  a  mission,  or  apostleship,  likely  to  awaken 

a  Num.  viii.  10.  xxviii.  18, 


OF    CHRISTIAN"     CHURCHES.  223 

prejudices,  than  to  have  ordained  them  to  an  office. 
Timothy  was  ordained  probably  to  be  a  presbyter,  by 
the  "laying  on  of  the  hands  of  a  presbytery,"  who  had 
been  ordained  for  an  individual  church.  Imposition 
of  hands  might  designate,  and  publicly  recognise  per- 
sons ;  but  it  neither  transmitted  virtue,  nor  authority; 
nor  defined  duties.  Paul's  commission  was,  conse- 
quently, neither  enlarged,  nor  restricted  by  the  mission 
he  received  at  Antioch.  Nor  was  Timothy's  office  of 
evangelist,  which  was  an  extraordinary  commission 
to  aid  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  produced  by  the  act 
of  a  presbytery  in  his  ordination  to  be  a  presbyter. 

The  primitive  churches  when  duly  furnished,  had 
each  its  presbytery  and  deacons ;  and  of  necessity  in 
planting  churches,  the  apostles  and  evangelists  did, 
when  alone,  respectively  ordain  presbyters  in  those 
which  were  new.b  But  afterwards  the  presbytery  of 
every  such  church  ordained  successors  to  themselves, 
and  also  deacons,  not  by  communicating  any  virtue, 
which  they  had  derived  mystically  from  the  apostles 
or  evangelists ;  but  by  assigning  them,  in  the  discharge 
of  their  own  duty,  with  the  consent  of  the  people,  a 
share  in  the  government  and  service  of  the  church. 

The  validity  of  offices  in  the  church  of  Christ,  is 
independent  of  the  internal  call.  But  both  ordainers 
and  ordained,  should  have  reasonable  grounds  to  be 

b  Paul  and  Barnabas  returning  to  the  churches  which  they  had 
planted;  "ordained  presbyters  for  them  in  every  church,"  xupo- 
TovHPx.vTt!  <fs  «utw  7rpzo-$ur$pGv ;  kxto.  £H.x.\>t<rixv  with  prayer  and 
fasting1.  The  Greeks  used  xupcrovia)  for  electing'  by  lifting'  the 
hand.  But  Paul  and  Barnabas  could  not  have  thus  voted,  being" 
but  two,  yet  the  act  was  theirs.  E5t;t/9m,m<  is  the  expression  for 
imposing  hands.  More  must  have  been  intended  by  ^upnTovna-uvrit, 
than  simply  that  they  appointed;  it  must  mean  that  they  set  them 
apart  to  the  office  of  presbyters,  for  that  was  the  effect,  and  such 
is  expressed  to  have  been  the  office,  and  it  was  with  prayer  and 
fasting".  Although  ^s/poTovsai  implies  not  necessarily,  either  voting 
by  lifting  the  hand,  or  ordaining  by  imposing-  the  hand,  for  it  is  used 
for  constituting  Moses  a  ruler,  and  Aaron  and  his  sons  priests,  by 
God  himself;  yet  it  is  probable  that  Taul  and  Barnabas  did  ordain 
by  imposition  of  hands. 


224  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

satisfied  of  the  truth  of  this  grace ;  which  is  no  more, 
than  the  ordinary  change  of  heart  or  disposition,  with 
a  conviction,  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  party  to  preach 
the  gospel,  and  that  he  has  the  requisite  knowledge, 
learning,  talents,  and  soundness  in  the  faith,  to  render 
him  useful.    The  authority  of  the  officers  of  the  church 
is  derived  through  the  apostles,  who  received  their 
commission  from  Christ  in  person,  and  were  directed 
by  the  Holy  Spirit,  to  provide  teachers  for  the  churches, 
in  the  manner  they  have  done.      If  the  case  of  Mat- 
thias, who  received  jrfKrxorf^,   an  oversight,  be  not  an 
exception,  the  apostolic  authority  and  gifts  were  pecu- 
liar to  those,  who  were  commissioned  by  Christ  after 
his  resurrection;    and  the  nearest  approximation  to 
theirs  was  the  office  of  evangelist,  which  was  also  ex- 
traordinary and  evanescent.      No  evangelists  appear 
in  the  history  of  the  church  after  the  deaths  of  those 
who  were  cotemporaries  of  the  apostles ;  nor  do  any 
other  officers,  except  those  of  individual  churches,  for 
a  century  after  the  death  of  John,  who  died  the  last 
of  the  apostles.      The  first  interpretation  of  a  rule  is 
generally  and  justly  supposed  to  be  the  right  one;  the 
first  condition  of  the  churches  establishes  the  only  or- 
dinary offices  of  the  New  Testament  to  have  been 
those  of  the  presbyter,  called  also  bishop,  and  of  the 
deacon ;    and  the  only  ordainers,  except  the  apostles 
and  evangelists,  appear  to  have  been  the  presbyteries 
of  the  respective  churches.     The  presbyter,  who  pre- 
sided in  each,  denominated  in  the  Apocalypse,  the  an- 
gel of  the  chuich,  was  consequently  thus  ordained,  and 
to  the  same  office  with  his  brethren.     Also,  if  the  sa- 
cred word  be  alone  competent  to  prescribe  and  define 
legitimate  powers,  and  rightful  commissions  of  officers 
in  the  church  of  Christ,  there  is  to  this  day  no  higher 
grade,  than  that  of  presbyter;  and  no  one  inferior  to 
the  deacon ;  neither  is  there  rightful  ordination,  but 
by  presbyters.      These  may  pray  for  the  Holy  Ghost 
to  breathe  upon  those,  on  whom  they  put  their  hands ; 
but  have  no  power  to  communicate  that  blessing ;  and 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  225 

that  a  moral  virtue  should  proceed  from  the  hands  of 
any,  who  now  ordain,  is  no  more  to  be  believed,  than 
that  the  water  in  baptism  should  either  physically,  au- 
thoritatively, or  mystically  remove  guilt.  Words  may 
invest  authority,  but  "so  send  I  you,"  did  neither  trans- 
fer the  Mediator's  commission,  nor  constitute  the  dis- 
ciples priests.  The  apostles  were  embassadors  of  God 
as  well  as  witnesses  of  Christ ;  and  being  in  all  their 
work  inspired  of  God,  they  were  directed  to  appoint 
evangelists  to  plant  churches ;  and  ordain  presbyters 
and  deacons  to  teach,  govern,  and  serve  them.  But 
when  such  were  designated  by  ordination,  the  gospel 
was  their  law,  or  rule  of  conduct ;  and  to  this  day,  no 
power  is  communicated  to  supersede  such  rule,  but  the 
rightful  offices  and  ordinances  remain  the  same. 

Titus,  Timothy,  and  other  evangelists,  inferior  in 
rank  and  gifts  to  the  apostles  only,  went  forth  to  the 
work;  connected  permanently  with  no  particular 
church  or  churches,  they  superseded,  during  their 
stay,  the  ordinary  officers  in  places  already  furnished, 
and  ordained  presbyters  and  deacons  in  those  which 
were  destitute.  The  works  of  the  apostles  procured 
that  precedence  and  respect,  to  which  their  inspiration 
was  entitled;  the  evangelists  were  chiefly  regarded, 
because  they  spoke,  and  wrote  the  truths  preached  by 
the  apostles ;  but  no  officers  were  left,  when  these  were 
removed,  except  those  connected  with  individual 
churches.  Parochial  and  diocesan  bishops,  archbish- 
ops, primates,  patriarchs,  and  popes,  have  all  proceeded 
from  presbyters,  without  any  other  scriptural  ordina- 
tion, than  that,  by  which  they  may  have  been  consti- 
tuted presbyters.  When  convenience,  or  policy,  had, 
after  a  lapse  of  time,  introduced  the  rule,  that  no  or- 
dination by  presbyters  should  be  valid,  unless  performed 
in  the  presence  of  the  primus  presbyter,  called  for  distinc- 
tion the  bishop,  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  Paul, 
2  Tim.  i.  0.  with  those  of  the  presbytery,  1  Tim.  iv.  14, 
was  adopted  as  an  argument  to  justify  the  novelty. 
But  in  still  later  times,  Timothy,  then  deemed  to  have 


226  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

been  a  bishop,  appeared  to  have  been  ordained  only  as 
a  presbyter,  because  in  the  third  century  presbyters  began 
to  be  excluded  from  the  ordination  of  a  bishop.  To 
avoid  this  difficulty  also,  and  escape  an  opposition  to  the 
word  of  God,  the  presbytery,  expressly  so  called, 
which  ordained  Timothy,  was  imagined  to  have  been 
a  council  of  bishops ;  "Because,"  says  Chrysostom, 
"  mere  presbyters  had  no  power  to  ordain  a  bishop ;" 
a  petitio  principii  worthy  of  the  golden-mouthed  father. 
But  Jerom  makes  this  occurrence  an  argument  to 
prove  presbyters  and  bishops  to  have  been  the  same ; 
for  Paul  had  not  Barnabas  with  him,  at  the  time  he  re- 
ceived Timothy.  Also  there  were  no  councils  of  bish- 
ops, except  the  presbyteries,  in  the  respective  churches. 
The  case  of  Timothy,  when  he  had  been  by  modern 
rules,  degraded  from  the  office  of  evangelist  to  that  of 
bishop,  was  still  encumbered  with  remaining  objec- 
tions ;  for  no  hands  ought  to  have  been  imposed,  either  by 
Paul,  or  the  presbytery,  upon  him  to  make  him  a 
bishop:  this  being  proper,  by  the  apostolical  canons, 
only  to  presbyters;  the  canons  requiring,  in  the  case  of 
bishops,  the  holding  the  Scriptures  over  the  head  of 
him,  who  is  to  be  ordained  bishop,  during  the  conse- 
crating prayer.  The  canons,  although  a  forgery  of 
the  fourth  century,  are  evidence  of  the  customs  of  their 
day,  and  do  by  this  circumstance  embarrass  also  the 
moderns,  who  suppose  it  an  omission,  although  the  rea- 
sons against  such  omission  are  conclusive.  Timothy 
had  been  ordained  by  the  presbytery  of  his  church,  in 
the  absence  of  Paul.  Afterwards  Paul  took  him,  as 
suitable  help  with  him,  and  with  his  own  hands,  as 
usual,  conferred  the  gifts  necessary  to  an  evangelist. 

The  letter  of  Polycarp,  of  high  credibility,  describes 
the  officers  of  the  church  at  Philippi  only  as  presbyters 
and  deacons.  In  the  inspired  letter  of  Paul  to  the  same 
church,  the  officers  are  addressed  as  bishops  and  dea- 
cons; the  terms  presbyter  and  bishop  being  as  yet  used 
promiscuously,  the  same  office  is  obviously  intended 
by  both.      Valens  had  fallen  into  error,  and  the  letter 


OF    CHRISTIAN*    CHURCHES.  227 

of  Polycarp,  rocognising  the  authority  of  the  presby- 
ters over  their  co-presbyter,  and  representing  him  as 
having  been  "  made  a  presbyter  among  them,'"  clearly 
enough  shows  that  the  apostolic  church  atPhilippiwas 
under  its  own  presbyters,  who  exercised  the  powers 
of  ordination  and  excommunication.  This  being  the 
first  testimony  after  the  apostles,  and  by  one  who  lived 
with  them,  is  decisive. 

That  the  same  was  also  the  precise  condition  of  the 
church  at  Corinth,  when  Clement,  of  whom  Paul 
speaks,  wrote  from  Rome  his  only  undisputed  letter  to 
them,  is  obvious  from  its  language:  "  Let  any  one 
among  you,  who  is  generous — say  if  the  division  is  on 
my  account — I  go  where  you  please,  and  will  do  what 
the  multitude  shall  appoint,  let  the  flock  of  Christ  en- 
joy peace  alone,  roith  the  presbyters,  7tpiaj3v7spuv,  who  have 
been  appointed  over  it."c  Of  these  he  speaks  as  having 
the  gifts  of  tTtuixo7tris,  the  oversight.'1 

When  Justifi  Martyr  wrote  his  two  apologies  for  the 
Christians,  which  was  within  fifty  years  of  John,  there 
were  only  presbyters,  whereof  one  in  each  church 
was  o  rtpoE<y7ws  scil.  7tp£oj3v7spo$,  the  presiding  (presbyter) 
who  administered  the  eucharist,  and  deacons  who  car- 
ried it  to  the  people.  Ordination  was  of  course  per- 
formed at  that  period,  by  presbyters  only. 

Near  the  end  of  the  second  century  Irenozus  wrote 
against  heretics,  and  relied  chiefly  on  the  certainty  of 
the  sameness  of  doctrines,  by  referring  to  the  succes- 
sions of  bishops  in  the  primitive  churches,  but  whom 
he  expressly  represents  as  presbijters,  presiding  among 
their  brethren.  Such  were  Soter,  Victor,  and  others  in 
the  catalogue  of  Popes,  whom  he  terms  rtpeapv7tpoi  o& 
7tpoa7av7e$,  and  if  they  were  only  presiding  presbyters,  their 
being  also  styled  bishops,  amounts  not  even  to  a  pre- 
sumption, that  there  had  been  a  secondary  ordination. 


c  Clement,  epist.   i.  c.  54. 

ll  T*    cTai/J*    T/IC     ITITX.<,T»S,  c.  44. 


228  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

Clement  of  Alexandria  places  bishops  in  honor  before 
presbyters,  because  they  occupied  theirs*  seat,  *pco7oxa- 
foSpta,  in  the  presbytery.  Nevertheless,  he  makes  but 
one  order  above  deacons ;  also  the  ordination  to  the 
office  of  presbyter  he  mentions,  but  nothing  of  any 
subsequent  ordination.  He  lived  into  the  third  cen- 
tury. 

Tertullian,  of  the  first  part  of  the  third  century, 
gives  the  same  representation  of  things  at  Carthage. 
He  distinguishes  bishops,  presbyters  and  deacons ;  the 
presbytery  was  still  of  one  church,  and  denominated 
ecclesiastici  ordinis  consensus.  He  speaks  of  one  order 
only.c  The  idea  of  the  bishop  was  still  that  of  a  pre- 
siding presbyter,  for  he  denominates  him  prczsidens,  an- 
tistes,  and  summus  sacerdos ;  and  mentions  no  ordina- 
tion of  such,  but  to  make  him  a  presbyter. 

At  no  earlier  a  period  than  the  first  of  the  third  cen- 
tury could  the  letters  attributed  to  Ignatius  have  been 
written.  They  describe  the  bishop  of  an  individual 
church  as  occupying  the  first  seat,  rfpoxa^EWtj  ;  and  a 
presbytery  of  preachers  with  deacons.  But  they  dis- 
cover no  ordination,  to  remove  a  presbyter  to  the 
higher  station  of  a  bishop. 

The  "Apostolical  Tradition"  ascribed  to  the  Hippoly- 
tus  of  the  third  century,  being  the  same  substantially 
with  the  eighth  book  of  the  supposititious  "Apostolical 
Constitutions,"  represents  a  bishop  and  presbytery  to 
have  been  in  each  particular  church,  and  details  mi- 
nutely their  respective  investitures  in  office.  The  peo- 
ple, presbytery,  and  the  neighbouring  bishops,  convene 
on  a  Lord's  day,  to  set  apart  the  person  previously 
choseti  by  all  the  people.  A  bishop  asks  the  presbytery 
and  the  people,  if  this  is  the  person  whom  they  desire  for  a 
President,  ov  aflowlat  «<j  apx°vla;  and  they  consenting, 
it  is  again  asked  of  his  character.     After  the  third  con- 


e  DifFerentiam  inter  ordinem  et  plebem,"  &c.     Tertull.  v.  iii.  p. 
119. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  229 

sent,  silence  being  made,  "  One  of  the  first  bishops,  to- 
gether with  two  others,  standing  near  the  altar,  the 
rest  of  the  bishops,  and  the  presbyters,  praying  in  si- 
lence, and  the  deacons  holding  the  divine  gospels  opened 
over  the  head  of  him,  who  is  ordained,  let  him  say  to 
God."  Then  follows  the  prayer.  The  ordination  of 
a  presbyter  is  with  imposition  of  hands,  and  is  described 
in  these  words.  "  When  thou,  O  bishop,  ordainest  a 
presbyter,  do  you  yourself  put  the  hand  upon  the  head,  the 
presbytery  standing  near  thee,  and  the  deacons ;  and 
praying,  say,"  &c.  The  prayer  to  consecrate  the 
bishop,  discovers,  that  he  is  to  have  the  power  of  bind- 
ing and  loosing.  The  prayer,  accompanied  with  the 
imposition  of  hands  on  a  presbyter,  expresses,  that  he 
is  to  edify  the  church  by  the  word  ;  and  those  for  the 
deacon,  deaconess,  and  subdeacons,  which  follow, 
speak  only  of  service ;  and  are  also  with  the  imposi- 
tion of  the  hands  of  the  bishop. 

Presbyters  having  been  from  the  first,  ordained  by 
imposition  of  hands;  the  appointment  of  one  of  these 
to  preside,  which  was  not  by  a  second  ordination,  con- 
ferred on  him  neither  a  new  order,  nor  office,  and  the 
ceremony  of  ordination  was  rightly  excluded.  It 
could  not  have  been  an  omission  for  it  is  supplied  by 
neither  Hippolytus,  nor  the  Constitutions.  It  cannot 
be  implied,  as  some  have  alleged,  because  the  idea  of 
imposing  hands  occurs  in  neither,  till  they  arrive  at 
the  scriptural  ordinations.  As  the  bishop  and  presby- 
ter was  then  known  to  be  the  same  office,  originating 
in  one  ordination,  the  innovation  would  have  been  of- 
fensive ;  also  the  holding  the  Scriptures  over  the  head 
was  sufficiently  distinctive.  The  ceremony  of  con- 
ducting the  bishop  unto,  and  seating  him  on  his  chief 
seat,  is  minutely  described  in  both ;  and  that  points  us 
to  the  origin  of  this  canonical  ordination.  From  apos- 
tolic times  some  mode  of  designation  of  a  presbyter 
to  the  first  seat,  rtpoloxaSsSpta,  must  have  existed.  That 
it  was  deemed  an  ordination  before  the  third  century, 
is  supported  by  no  proof,  but  excluded  by  the  isolated 


230  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

condition  of  the  individual  churches,  the  subjugation 
of  Christians  to  the  Pagan  establishment,  the  limited 
powers  and  actual  services  of  the  bishops  or  presidents, 
as  well  as  by  the  introduction  of  the  ordination  with- 
out imposition  of  hands.  Thus  although  the  powers 
of  the  primus  presbyter  had  accumulated  through  all 
the  second  century,  especially  in  the  larger  cities,  it 
was  not  before  the  middle  of  the  third,  that  the  desig- 
nation to  such  presidency  over  his  fellow  presbyters, 
denominated  by  Jeiom,  "in  gradu  excelsiori  colloca- 
tio,"  was  considered  as  a  second  ordination.  Then 
the  influence  of  bishops,  though  parochial,  became 
enlarged  by  consultations,  and  frequent  communica- 
tions, and  the  monopoly  of  the  rite  of  ordination,  un- 
der the  pretext  of  preventing  discordances  among 
presbyters.  Also  the  existence  of  one  church  only  in 
a  city,  enhanced  the  authority  of  the  bishops  of  the 
larger  cities ;  where  the  presbyters,  however  numer- 
ous, constituting  the  presbytery  of  a  single  church,  ex- 
ercised their  talents,  except  in  Alexandria,  under  the 
direction  of  the  presbytery,  over  which  the  bishop 
presided.  The  power  of  ordaining,  and  not  his  own 
commission,  distinguished  the  parochial  bishop.  Had 
the  canonical  ordination  commenced  so  early  as  the 
second  century,  bishops  would  have  discovered  their 
claims  to  the  heritage,  at  a  period  prior  to  that  assign- 
ed to  the  fact  by  veritable  history.  The  division  of 
ordinary  grades  into  three,  must  have  commenced  with 
the  re-ordination  of  presbyters  to  constitute  them 
bishops;  but  the  supposition,  that  this  existed  in  the 
apostles'  days,  is  not  only  entirely  gratuitous,  but  per- 
fectly chimerical. 

When  ordinations  by  presbyters  had  been  generally 
superseded,  their  original  powers  were  not  forgotten. 
"The  elders,"  says  Firmilian,  "preside,  who  possess 
the  power  of  baptizing,  imposing  the  hand,  and  or- 
daining.'""   They  also  sat  in  the  first  annual  councils, 

f  "Ubi  prssiduntmajoresnatu,  qui  et  baptizandi,  et  manum  im- 
ponendi,  et  ordinandi  possident  potestatem."     Cyprian,  epist.  75. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  231 

in  Asia  Minor.  "Every  year,  we,  the  elders  and  the 
presidents  meet  in  one  place,  to  dispose  of  the  things 
committed  to  our  care."ff  Even  at  Carthage,  No vatus, 
whom  Cyprian  calls  his  co-presbyter,h  ordained  Feli- 
cissimus  a  deacon,  without  the  permission  or  know- 
ledge of  his  bishop,1  which  was  neither  declared  void, 
nor  immediately  subjected  to  censure.  Giegory  Thau- 
maturgus,  Phidimus,  and  Alexander,  each  ordained, 
and  each  had  received  but  one  ordination.k  Nor  have 
we  found  prior  to  the  Cyprianic  age,  the  ordination  of 
any  one  to  be  a  bishop,  who  had  been  previously  a 
presbyter. 

Ambrose  the  metropolitan  of  Milan,  Nectarius  of 
Constantinople,  Eusebius  the  successor  of  Bazil,  Euche- 
rius  bishop  of  Lyons,  Cyprian  of  Carthage,  and  Philo- 
gonius  bishop  of  Antioch,  are  thought  to  have  been 
laymen  when  ordained  to  be  bishops.  Athanasius 
bishop  of  Alexandria,  Cascilianus  of  Carthage;  Agapi- 
tus,  Vigilius  and  Felix,  bishops  of  Rome,  and  Hera- 
clides  bishop  of  Ephesus,  were  never  presbyters,  ex- 
cept as  bishops,  having  passed  from  the  order  of  dea- 
cons to  that  of  bishops.  These  and  such  examples, 
accruing  soon  after  bishops  and  presbyters  had  been 
established  by  canon  law  to  be  distinct  orders,  accord 
with  the  fact  that  there  had  been  from  the  first  no  or- 
dination, except  of  the  deacon  and  presbyter. 

Constantine  could  not  as  a  Christian,  receive  with 
the  purple,  the  Pagan  supremacy  of  Pontifex  Maximus; 
but  he  established,  instead  of  idolatry,  the  Christian 
church,  by  adopting  the  canons  of  the  council  of  Nice 
as  the  supreme  law  of  the  Roman  empire.  Thus  the 
ordinations  of  presbyters  and  deacons,  according  to 
the  usages  adopted  in  the  different  provinces  and  king- 

E  Per  s'mgulos  annos,  seniores  et  prcepositi  in  unum  convenimus 
ad  disponenda,"  &c.     Ibid. 

1>  Epist.  15. 

•  "Diaconum  nee  permittente  me,  nee  sciente — constituit." 
Ep'dt.  52      Vide  a  later  instance,  Cassian  267. 

k  Gregor.  Nyss.  2  vol.  979.  idem.  995. 


232  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

doms,  were  legalized;  and  in  imitation  of  the  idola- 
trous priesthood,  a  metropolitan  was  erected  over 
each  province,  and  his  approbation  was  thenceforth  ne- 
cessary to  every  ordination  of  a  bishop  within  his  ter- 
ritories. The  system  of  ecclesiastical  government 
thus  established,  was  somewhat  multiform,  because  it 
had  been  removed  from  the  apostolical  plan  in  differ- 
ent degrees  and  various  particulars,  in  the  remote  pro- 
vinces and  countries.  But  subsequent  councils  devised 
numerous  canons,  to  reduce  the  different  customs  of 
distant  churches  more  nearly  to  a  common  standard. 
Thus  ecclesiastical  authority,  substituted  by  the  laws 
of  the  empire  in  the  place  of  the  Pagan,  though  at  first 
excusable  as  a  defence  against  persecution,  has,  by 
worldly  policy  and  priestcraft,  grown  into  a  hierarchy, 
which  at  different  periods  has  proved  an  engine,  even 
surpassing  the  former,  in  violence  and  blood. 

The  ascendency  gained  by  the  presiding  presbyters 
in  the  churches,  furnished,  to  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
policy,  a  ready  expedient  for  the  substitution  of  a  Chris- 
tian, in  the  place  of  a  Pagan  priesthood.  Yet  was  it 
well  known,  that  the  ordination  of  the  bishop  and  of 
the  presbyter  was  originally  one  and  the  same.  Hilary 
the  deacon,  observed  on  1  Tim.  iii.  "After  the  bishop, 
he,  Paul,  subjoins  the  ordination  of  the  deacon.  Why, 
unless  because  the  ordination  of  the  bishop  and  pres- 
byter is  the  same  Va  Aerius  affirmed  they  differed  in 
nothing;  the  order  and  the  honor  were  one;  the  bish- 
op imposes  hands,  and  so  does  the  presbyter.1"  Basil 
an  aspiring  metropolitan,  acknowledged,  that  the 
things  written  by  Paul  to  Timothy,  and  Titus,  were 
spoken  conjunctly  to  bishops  and  presbyters.  Also  his 
friend  Gregory,  who  for  a  time  was  archbishop  of 

1  Post  episcopum  diaconi  ordinationem  subjicit.  Quare,  nisi 
quia  episcopi  et  presbvteri  una  ordinatio  est?  Ambros.  torn. 
iii.  272. 

m — cvSiv  cT/iXXa'/7«;  cvlos  Toulai  /uix  yap  e?7iv  t*£/c,  x.M  [xix 
ti/ux,  %tipo()t]ti — i7ri&K07r(i()  ctwn  kai  o  TrpirjZulipzs. — Epipban. 
lib.  iii.  vol.  p.  906. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  233 

Constantinople,  "wished  there  had  been  no  first  seat, 
priority  of  place,  or  tyrannical  dictatorship;"  showing 
that  he  esteemed  the  precedence  adventitious.  It  is 
probable,  that  the  peculiar  disposition  of  Aerius,  and 
the  disappointed  views  of  the  pious  bishop  of  Nazian- 
zum,  may  have  occasioned  such  expressions;  yet  were 
they  not  the  less  founded  in  truth.  Chrysostom  ob- 
served," that  bishops  were  superior  to  presbyters  only 
in  ordination.  And  Jerom  asks,  "what  does  a  bishop, 
ordination  excepted,  which  a  presbyter  does  not."  ° 
They  both  speak  of  ordination,  as  it  was  in  their  own 
day,  resting  upon  custom,  and  canons,  established  as 
laws  of  the  empire,  and  not  of  ordination,  as  it"  had 
been  left  by  the  apostles.  The  former,  in  his  flourishes, 
often  accommodated  the  Scriptures  to  the  usages  of 
his  own  day ;  whilst  the  latter,  equally  favorable  to 
ecclesiastical  power,  but  of  more  extensive  learning, 
and  knowledge  of  history,  has  disclosed  the  same  view 
of  these  things,  which  the  truth  stiil  exhibits;  "that  a 
presbyter  was  the  same  as  a  bishop,  and  that  the 
churches  were  governed  by  a  common  council  of 
presbyters,  but  afterwards  it  was  decreed  throughout 
the  world,  that  one,  chosen  from  the  presbyters,  should 
be  placed  over  the  rest."p  The  evidence  of  these 
things  has  survived  to  this  day ;  the  numerous  efforts 
to  destroy  it,  and  establish  the  contrary,  notwithstand- 
ing. If  the  offices  were  one,  they  required  but  one 
ordination. 

The  sum  is,  that  when  the  extraordinary  officers,  the 
apostles  and  evangelists,  passed  away,  they  left  only 

n    Horn.   1  Tim.  iii.   8. 

0    Epist.  85.  ad  Evagrium. 

''  "  Idem  est  ergo  presbyter,  qui  et  episcopus — communi  pres- 
byterorum  coneilio  ecclesis  gubernabantur.  Postquam  vero  in  toto 
orbe  decretum  est,  ut  unus  de  presbyteris  electus  superponeretur 
ceteris."— Hieron.  op.  Tom.  vi.  198.  The  "  decretum  est"  he 
explains  by  "  consuetudine."— p.  199.  Augustine  refers  the  su- 
periority also  to  custom — "ecclesia"  usus  obtinuit,  episcopatus 
presbyteris  major  sit.  Tom.  ii.  Epist.  ad  Hier.  He  also  asks 
"Quid  est  enim  episcopus,  nisi  primus  presbyter  ?"     Tom.  iv.  f80. 

v2 


234  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,    &C. 

presbyters  and  deacons  in  the  churches :  the  duties  and 
powers  of  whom  were  perspicuously  detailed  in  the 
New  Testament.  Ordinations  were  consequently  of 
those  two  kinds  only,  both  of  which  were  to  be  per- 
formed by  the  presbyters  of  the  churches  respectively. 
Ordination  communicated  no  gift,  virtue,  or  right ;  but 
merely  designated  the  person  as  solemnly  appointed  to 
the  work  attached  to  such  office  in  the  sacred  word: 
neither  the  truth  nor  the  efficacy  of  the  gospel,  nor  the 
validity  nor  utility  of  its  ordinances,  depending  upon 
either  the  internal  call,  or  the  external  commission. 
But  although  the  ordination,  which  now  adds  the  epis- 
copal authority  to  the  office  of  a  presbyter,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  confer  on  the  bishop  the  sole  right  to  ordain, 
is  merely  founded  on  custom,  and  supported  by  eccle- 
siastical canons,  and  imperial  decrees ;  and  not  by 
scriptural  authority ;  and  notwithstanding  the  ordina- 
tion of  lay  elders  is  a  still  more  modern  invention,  and 
wholly  unknown  to  ancient  Christians,  yet  may  salva- 
tion be  obtained,  and  the  gospel  faithfully  preached 
under  any  form  of  church  government. 


SECTION   XXIV. 


THE  INTRODUCTION  OF  LAY  ELDERS  BY  CALVIN. 

No  instance  of  a  lay  presbyter  occurs  in  the  history  of  the  church  before 
the  Reformation. — They  had  no  place  among  Catholics. — The  Culdees 
of  Scotland  and  Ireland  were  Catholics. — The  Syrian  Christians  were 
episcopal,  and  were  planted  in  the  fourth  century  ;  the  Vallenses  or  Pied- 
montese,  the  persecuted  Bohemians  and  Moraviayis,  and  Waldenses  of 
France,  were  all  Catholics,  and  as  really  Episcopalian  as  the  Eastern 
and  Western  churches. — They  were  introduced  by  Calvin  as  a  compro- 
mise, under  the  name  of  inspectors,  and  quasi  presbyters,  as  a  check  upon 
the  clergy  ;  but  really  to  secure  a  majority  on  the  Protestant  side,  in  their 
new  consistory  at  Geneva,  where  the  Catholic  clergy  had  defeated  his  efforts 
to  reform,  by  their  numbers. — How  the  expedient  was  successively  adopted 
in  other  cantons,  France,  Netherlands,  Scotland,  and  finally  in  America, 
in  1788. — But  still  many  churches  deny  any  scriptural  warrant,  and  do  as 
they  always  have  done,  choose  and  ordain  deacons,  and  call  them  elders. 

When  they  who  compose,  execute  the  laws,  their 
own  practice,  under  the  rules  they  have  indited,  is  the 
fairest  criterion  of  interpretation.  If  lay  presbyters 
had  no  existence  in  the  first  ages,  commencing  in  the 
days  of  the  apostles,  and  extending  through  four  cen- 
turies ;  there  is  more  than  violent  presumption,  there 
is  the  strongest  negative  evidence,  that  they  rest  nei- 
ther on  precept  nor  example,  in  the  church  of  Christ. 

The  government  of  the  Christian  church,  from  the 
death  of  the  last  apostle,  unto  that  of  the  first  Leo, 
after  whom  no  change  obtained,  until  the  Reforma- 
tion, has  been  detailed ;  that  of  the  Waldenses,  par- 
ticularly investigated ;  and  the  common  mistake 
with  respect  to  their  government  exposed.  They 
were  covertly  episcopal,  though,  after  Claude,  not 
papal ;  but  never  presbyterial,  prior  to  the  Helvetic 
abjuration  of  popery. 


236  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

The  Culdees,  Colidei,  worshippers  of  God,  of  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  the  Scotia  of  ancient  writers,  have  been 
passed  in  silence,  because  modern  ideas  of  them  rest 
only  in  vague  traditions  and  opinions.  The  Celtic 
language  had  no  alphabet.  The  Scots  have  no  his- 
tory, written  within  a  thousand  years  of  the  Christian 
era ;  and  little  can  be  ferreted  out  of  foreign  authors. 
A  sentence  is  found  in  Tertullian,  and  another  in 
Prosper  ;  both  uncertain.  Gildas  of  England,  A.  D. 
560,  represents  them  as  episcopal.  The  earliest  pe- 
riod assigned  to  the  gospel  among  them  by  Bede  of 
of  730,  was,  when  it  was  every  where  episcopal. 
Their  oldest  historian  was  an  arch-deacon  of  St.  An- 
drews, in  the  eleventh  century ;  their  second  was  of 
the  thirteenth.  Both  are  lost.  Hector  Boethius,  quot- 
ed by  Blondel  and  Selden,  has  been  convicted  by 
Lloyd  of  disingenuousness.  The  credulity  of  these 
writers,  as  well  as  of  Buchanan  and  Knox,  is  on  this 
point  visible.  Let  their  veracity  remain  unimpeached  ; 
belief  is  not  knowledge,  and  neither  can  their  offer, 
nor  could  our  reception  of  it  as  testimony,  make  it 
truth.  The  Culdees  who  were  removed  from  Aber- 
nethy  to  St.  Andrews,  were  monks ;  and  such  were 
those  at  Armagh  in  Ireland.  They  may  have  been 
clerical,  since  iq  each  place  they  elected  arch-bishops; 
but  they  were  Catholic,  for  they  appealed  to  Rome. 
Columba,  also,  the  apostle  of  thePicts,  was,  according 
to  Bede,  "  a  monk  in  priest's  orders,"  and  planted 
monasteries  in  Ireland  and  Britain. 

The  Syrian  Christians,  the  Culdees,  and  the  Wal- 
denses,  were  all  of  episcopal  origin.  Old  men  have 
lived  in  every  age,  whose  prudence  and  experience 
have  been  brought  into  requisition ;  but  of  presbyters 
without  authority  to  preach,  neither  a  word  nor  an 
example  is  found,  from  the  demise  of  the  last  apostle, 
unto  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland;  they  neither 
existed  in  the  original  form  of  government,  nor  in  the 
secondary,  which  was  parochial  episcopacy  ;  nor  in 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  237 

that  which  absorbed  the  rest,  the  diocesan,  which  be- 
came, so  far  as  we  yet  know,  literally  Catholic. 

Such  was  Christendom  until  the  period  of  the  Refor- 
mation. The  Eastern  church  speaks  for  itself.  Rome 
had  been  sacked  in  1527,  and  the  pope  captured ;  also, 
Charles  V.  as  well  as  Francis  I.  had  defied  the  enmity 
of  the  court  of  Rome ;  nevertheless,  they  were  both 
intolerant  Papists,  and  maintained  and  enforced 
episcopal  government.  In  England,  the  power  of  the 
pope  bad  been  abolished  by  parliament  in  1532,  yet  the 
doctrines  and  ecclesiastic  government,  in  other  re- 
spects, remained  the  same.  James  V.  then  reigned 
in  Scotland,  and  died  in  1542,  a  devoted  Catholic, 
leaving  his  kingdom  under  papal  administration.  The 
Reformation  commenced  in  Germany  in  1517.  The 
protestation  of  Saxony,  Hesse,  Anhalt,  and  fourteen 
cities,  against  the  violent  measures  of  the  diet  at  Spice, 
was  signed  in  1529.  The  Augsburg  confession  was 
made  and  condemned  in  1530.  The  Protestant  de- 
fensive league  was  entered  into  at  Smalkald  in  1531. 
But  it  was  the  papal,  not  the  episcopal  government, 
thai  had  as  yet  been  renounced.  In  Switzerland,  in 
1308,  three  cantons  confederated:  they  afterwards 
subdued  two  others,  and  placed  them  on  equal  terms. 
In  1332,  Lucerne  acceded  to  the  confederacy.  In 
1353,  Berne  and  Zug  joined  them.  In  1383,  they 
sustained  themselves  against  the  duke  of  Austria.  In 
1471,  they  received  the  Grisons.  In  1481,  Friburg 
and  Soleure,  in  1501,  Basil  and  Schaffhausen,  and 
in  1513,  Appenzel  were  admitted.  In  the  battle  of 
Nancy,  they  defeated  and  slew  Charles  the  bold. 

From  1526,  when  Zuinglius,  the  Swiss  reformer, 
was  excommunicated  by  a  Catholic  diet,  unto  the  au- 
tumn of  1531,  when  his  death  was  achieved,  he  offer- 
ing himself  a  victim  in  defence  of  liberty  of  conscience 
and  the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  the  cantons  of  Zu- 
rich and  Berne,  with  the  towns  of  Basil  and  Schaff- 
hausen, maintained  an  unremitting  struggle  against 


238  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

the  intolerance  of  five  Catholic  cantons,  which  those, 
who  were  neutral,  were  unable  to  repress.  But  al- 
though Zurich  and  Berne,  and  Basil,  and  SchafThau- 
sen,  had  abolished  popery,  and  church  temporalities 
within  their  territories,  they  had  neither  removed  the 
subordination  of  ministers,  nor  created  new  offices  in 
the  church.  At  length,  peace  was  restored,  because 
their  existence  as  free  states  was  at  last  seen  to  depend 
upon  their  confederacy ;  and  each  was  to  adopt  and 
maintain  its  own  form  of  government,  both  civil  and 
ecclesiastical ;  and  public  safety  to  be  bartered  away 
no  more  for  religious  predilections. 

Calvin,  passing  by  Geneva,  in  August,  1536,  on  his 
way  northward,  was  importuned  by  some  of  the 
clergy,  who  were  favorable  to  the  reformation,  to  re- 
main, and  aid  them  in  preaching,  and  to  become  a 
reader  in  divinity. 

The  season  was  favorable,  the  rulers  and  people 
having  been  exasperated  by  the  conspiracy  of  their 
bishop  with  the  duke  of  Savoy  against  their  liberties ; 
who,  being  chargeable  also  with  crimes  of  a  private 
nature,  had  fled  away  a  few  months  before.  Although 
the  preachers  of  Geneva,  as  well  as  Calvin,  and  all  the 
people,  were  Catholic,  they  were  not,  in  fact,  under 
episcopal  government ;  and  their  submission  to  their 
pastors  rested  merely  on  persuasion.  Of  the  six  min- 
isters of  Geneva,  two  only  were  favorable  to  the  doc- 
trines of  the  reformation,  and  confidants  of  Calvin ; 
the  rest  being  licentious,  and  inclined  in  heart  to 
popery.  But  a  majority  of  the  people  were,  from  ob- 
vious motives,  haters  of  ecclesiastical  fraud,  sensuality, 
and  oppression.  In  this  state  of  vacillation  and  licen- 
tiousness, Calvin  adopted  the  expedient  of  preparing 
an  outline  of  doctrine  and  discipline,  to  be  sworn  to 
and  subscribed,  as  an  antidote  against  popery.  The 
obligation  of  an  oath  to  adhere  to  the  rules  and  doc- 
trines advised  by  a  minority  of  the  ministers,  was  a 
perilous,  but  decisive  measure.  Nevertheless,  it  was 
taken  by  a  majority  in  the  summer  of  1537, 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  239 

In  the  next  year,  Farell,  Calvin,  and  Corald,  aiming 
at  a  stricter  discipline,  declared  they  could  not  ad- 
minister the  supper  to  people  so  irregular,  and  discor- 
dant among  themselves.  Advantage  was  immediately 
taken  by  the  Catholics,  and,  within  two  days,  a  gene- 
ral council  having  been  convened,  they  voted,  that 
those  three  ministers  should  leave  the  city. 

Calvin  went  to  Zurich,  and  afterwards  to  Strasburg, 
where  he  became  the  pastor  of  a  French  church. 
Corald  died.  Farell  retired  to  Neufchatel,  and  never 
consented  to  be  again  a  minister  at  Geneva.  Not- 
withstanding his  exile,  Calvin  answered  the  letter  of 
the  bishop  of  Carpentras,  written  against  the  Reforma- 
tion at  Geneva ;  but  would  not  hear  the  recantations 
of  the  Genevese.  He  refused  to  become  a  cypher 
among  colleagues,  and  a  people  incompetent  to  dis- 
criminate between  the  discipline  of  Christ  and  papal 
tyranny.a  He  attended  by  appointment  the  confe- 
rences at  Worms  and  Ratisbon,  with  Melancthon  and 
others.  Interest  had  been  made  in  behalf  of  Geneva, 
and  he  was  there  pressed  by  the  heads  of  the  Reforma- 
tion to  return  to  that  canton,  as  a  thing  indispensable. 
He  yielded,  upon  condition  he  should  not  be  interrupt- 
ed in  ecclesiastical  disciplined  Accordingly,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1541,  he  resumed  his  labors  at  Geneva,  still 
subject  to  the  claims  of  Strasburg,  as  Viret  was  to 
Berne,  but  the  canton  soon  obtained  his  release.  His 
colleagues  professing  reconciliation,  and  reaching  out 
the  hand,  were  suffered  to  remain ;  yet  were  they  an 
incumbrance,  possessing  neither  zeal  nor  learning. 

To  secure  the  ascendency  of  himself  and  Viret 
over  their  co-presbyters,  was  the  first  necessary  ef- 
fort.    "  I  detailed,"  he  says,  "  to  the  senate  my  labor; 

3  — "Locum  sine  ulla  auctoritatc  teneam?  Quidenim  faciemus? 
Unde  sumemus  exordium,  si  res  collapsas  velimus  instaurare?  Si 
verbum  fecero  quod  displicuerit,  mox  silentium  imperabunt." 
Calv.  epist.  12. 

b  — "  Suo  ipsi  judicio  obstricti  erunt,  ne  reclament  amplius,  aut 
quicquam  ad  ordinem  nostrum  turbandum  moveant."     Epist.  25. 


240  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

I  showed  them  that  the  church  could  not  stand,  unless 
a  certain  form  of  government  were  appointed,  such 
as  is  prescribed  to  us  in  the  word  of  God,  and  was  ob- 
served in  the  ancient  church.  I  then  touched  certain 
heads,  whence  they  might  understand  what  I  wished. 
But  because  the  whole  matter  could  not  be  explained, 
I  begged  that  there  should  be  given  us  those  who 
might  confer  with  us.  Six  were  appointed  to  us. 
Articles  will  be  written  concerning  the  whole  govern- 
ment of  a  church,  which  we  shall  afterwards  lay  be- 
fore the  senate."c 

The  colleagues  of  Calvin  and  Viret  "  openly  assent- 
ed, because  they  were  ashamed  to  contradict  in  mat- 
ters so  public,"  but  they  secretly  persuaded  the  sena- 
tors not  to  abandon  their  power.  They  sought  to 
"  escape  that  discipline  and  order  which  they  could 
not  bear,"  and  to  "  weaken  the  authority  of  the 
church.'"1 

Before  this  proposition,  no  canton  in  Switzerland 
had,  so  far  as  is  known,  even  the  idea  of  a  lay  officer 
in  the  church,  but  every  presbyter  and  every  deacon 
was  a  preacher  of  the  gospel.  This  reference  was, 
nevertheless,  not  wholly  without  a  precedent ;  for,  in 
1532,  a  committee  had  been  appointed  by  parliament 
in  England,  half  laymen  and  half  ecclesiastics,  with 
Henry  VIII.  at  its  head,  to  decide  upon  certain  eccle- 
siastical constitutions,  which  were  alleged  to  involve 
temporal  rights,  and  subject  them  to  spiritual  cen- 
sures. 

The  committee  at  Geneva  reported ;  laws  were 
prescribed;  and  a  constitution  instituted  by  the  Gene- 
ral Council,  on  the  20th  November,  1541.  The  con- 
sistory was  to  contain  a  double  number  of  laymen, 
chosen  annually  ;  that  is,  at  first  it  consisted  of  the  six 
ministers,  two  laymen  from  the  lesser  senate,  or  coun- 
cil of    twenty-five ;    and   ten    from   the   greater,   or 

c  Epist.  50.  d  Epist.  54. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  241 

council  of  two  hundred ;  one  of  the  Syndics  presid- 
ing.6 

That  Calvin  did  afterwards  attempt  to  justify  the 
reception  of  lay  presbyters,  from  the  authority  of  the 
Scriptures,  his  writings  evince.  It  is  perfectly  clear, 
nevertheless,  that  it  was  adopted  at  first  by  him  as  an 
expedient  for  reducing  the  church  at  Geneva  to  a 
state  of  discipline,  which  should  secure  the  reforma- 
tion at  that  place.  He  probably  preferred  the  name 
consistory,  because  the  judicatory  was  composed  of 
presbyters  and  laymen  ;  for  since  ordination  is  by  lay- 
ing on  of  the  hands  of  the  presbytery,  if  those  laymen 
were  members  of  a  presbytery,  then  they  must  impose 
hands,  and  give  an  authority  which  they  possessed 
not.  As  if  apprehensive,  also,  of  the  impropriety  of 
denominating  men  presbyters  who  had  received  no 
ordination,  he  called  them  Inspectors  ;  and  such  they 
really  were,  not  as  sometimes  it  is  explained,  of  the 
morals  of  the  people,  but  evidently  of  the  designs  of 
the  clergy,  whose  bishop  had,  within  one  year  before 
the  arrival  of  Calvin,  committed  treason  against  the 
canton,  from  a  desire  to  bring  them  back  to  the  chains 
of  popery. 

Soon  after  he  had  gained  a  consistory,  Calvin 
writes,  "Now  we  have  a  judgment  of  presbyters,  such 
as  it  is,  and  a  form  of  discipline,  such  as  the  infirmity 
of  the  times  could  bear."* 

e  — "Non  solos  verbi  ministros  sedere  judices  in  consistorio; 
sed  numcrum  duplomajorem,  partim  ex  minori  senatu,  ex  delectis 
senioribus  esse,  ut  vocant,  partim  ex  majore  diligi,  ad  haec  unum 
fere  ex  syndicis  praesidere."  Epist.  167".  "Deliguntur  quotannis 
duodecem  seniores;  nempe  ex  minori  senatu  duo,  reliqui  exducen- 
tis,  sive  sint  indigent  sive  ascriptitii  cives.  Qui  probe  et  fideliter 
munere  suo  perfuncti  sunt,  loco  non  moventur;  nisi,  &c.  Ante- 
quam  ab  electione  sua  sedeant,  eorum  nomina  publice  eduntur,  ut 
siquis  cos  indignos  cognoverit  mature  denunceat. "  Epist  302. 
Southey,  in  "  The  Book  of  the  Church,"  2d  vol.  p.  293,  says, 
"Calvin  himself"  was  "  perpetual  president;"  an  error  perfectly 
in  character  for  a  mere  compiler. 

f  "Nunc  habemus  qualecunque  presbyterorum  judicium,  et 
formam  discipline  qualemferebattemporum  infirmitas."  Epist.  54. 

w 


242  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

The  presbyters  here  intended  were  the  preachers, 
for  he  then  thought  of  no  others,  and  represents  that 
he  had  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  tribunal,  in  which  the 
sentence  of  a  presbytery  might  be  judicially  given, 
according  to  the  original  mode  of  ecclesiastical  trials 
among  the  early  Christians ;  nevertheless,  he  qualifies 
his  representation  by  the  words  "  such  as  it  is,"  not 
"  such  as  they  are,"  for  the  judgment  to  be  rendered 
by  the  presbyters  would  be  under  the  control  of  the 
duplicate  rates  of  lay  members  in  the  consistory.     Of 
this  Calvin  had,  nevertheless,  no  reason  to  complain  ; 
for  what  could  he  have  effected  without  laymen,  when 
the  major  number  of  the  clergy  were  really  Catholic, 
and  hostile  to  a  reformation,  in  doctrines,  discipline, 
and  manners?  They  had  caused  his  banishment,  when 
his  clerical  minority  was  greater.  They  were  secretly 
opposed  to  his  return ;  and  even  at  the  time  of  their 
public   gratulations,    resisted   clandestinely  the    new 
government,  "  as  rigid,  tyrannical,  and  contrary  to  the 
practice  of  the  other  churches,  which  governed  with- 
out such  articles." 

The  people  were  suspicious,  for  they  had  learned 
by  experience  to  be  jealous  of  clerical  power,  and 
were  disposed  to  weaken  it,?  alleging  that  "  Moses,  a 
secular  prince,  had  prescribed  to  Aaron,  and  David  to 
the  priests."  So  arduous  was  the  work  of  reforma- 
tion at  Geneva,  that  Calvin  declared  that  without 
Viret  he  could  not  preserve  that  church.1' 

In  1553,  a  question  arose  upon  their  articles  of 
agreement;  the  senate  claiming  an  appellative  juris- 
diction in  all  causes  decided  by  the  consistory ;  but 
the  original  intention  was  merely  to  secure,  in  certain 
cases,  the  intervention  of  civil  authority.  One  Ber- 
telier  had  been  suspended  from  the  communion  by 


s  — "Eaici — in  potcstate  positi,  si  quando  possint,  nos,  qui 
verbo  prosumus,  auctoritatemque  nostram  labefactare.     Epist.  47. 

h  "  Si  me  Viretus  auferatur  prorsus  perii,  nee  banc,  ecclesiam 
salvam  relinere  potero."     Epist.  39. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  243 

the  consistory.  He  complained  to  the  senate,  who 
heard  the  reasons  of  the  sentence,  and  confirmed  it. 
Within  half  a  year,  he  applied  to  them  again  for  res- 
toration. Calvin  was  again  heard.  But  the  senate 
restored  the  offender.  Calvin  declared  that  lie  pre- 
ferred resignation  to  compliance. 

The  senate  of  Geneva,  in  compromise,  asked  the 
advice  of  the  senate  of  Zurich,  on  three  questions: 
the  first  was  concerning  excommunication  ;  the  se- 
cond, whether  it  could  not  be  exereised  in  some  other 
manner  than  by  a  consistory?  and  the  third  was  for 
advice  how  to  act.  To  these  it  was  answered  by  the 
other  senate — "That  they  had  heard  of  the  consisto- 
rial  rules  of  the  church  at  Geneva,  acknowledged 
them  to  be  pious,  and  near  to  the  prescript  of  the 
word  of  God  ;  and,  therefore,  could  not  advise  a 
change,  especially  at  that  period."1  That  the  pastors 
of  the  Protestant  churches  at  Zurich,  Berne,  Schaff- 
hausen,  and  Basil,  considered  themselves  to  be  deeply 
interested,  at  that  time,  in  supporting  Calvin,  and  ob- 
taining the  approbation  of  their  senates,  appears  by 
their  letters. 

In  1554,  he  observed — "  That  the  conflict  was  over, 
and  peace  restored ;  after  the  church  at  Geneva  had 
fluctuated,  like  Noah's  ark  upon  the  waters,"  yet  that 
he  was  still  apprehensive."  That  when  invited  into 
the  public  assembly,  he  had  freely  forgiven  every  one 
who  had  repented;  but  that  he,  being  but  one  of  the 
consistory,  did  not  arrogate  the  right  of  representing 
the  church."k 

Calvin  prevailed  to  establish  an  order  of  govern 
ment,  as  nearly  approximating  the  original  form,  as 

*  — "Audivisse  nos  de  legibus  ecclesix  consistorialibus,  et  ag- 
noscere  illas  pias  esse,  et  accedere  ad  verbi  Dei  pra:scripUim: 
ideoque  non  videri  admittendum,  ut  per  innovationem  mutentur, 
hoc  prrcsertim  seculo,"  8cc.      Epist.  1-06. 

k  "  Tandem  hue  ventum  est,  ut  inter  se  omnes  reconciliaren- 
tur," — "  Acris  erat  dimicatio,— breyi  tamen  rursus  certandum 
erit."     Epist.  171. 


244  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

the  dissolute  morals,  and  fixed  prejudices  of  the  Gene- 
vese  against  ecclesiastical  tyranny,  would  allow. 

Of  the  original  parity  of  presbyters,  Calvin  could 
not  have  been  ignorant ;  into  that  state  the  church  of 
Geneva  had  providentially  fallen  by  their  abandon- 
ment of  papal  authority,  and  by  the  flight  of  their 
bishop.  Of  a  re-establishment  of  episcopacy  no  one 
appears  to  have  thought ;  nor  did  there  occur  a  sylla- 
ble about  an  inferior  order  of  presbyters.  He  could 
have  seen  nothing  of  the  kind  in  any  Christian  writer 
before  his  day.1  The  introduction  of  laymen  into 
the  church  of  Geneva,  thus  originated,  not  from  a 
previous  design  to  introduce  an  inferior  kind  of  pres- 
byters, but  from  the  exigencies  of  their  condition. 
The  success  of  the  expedient,  led  others  in  similar 
circumstances,  to  the  adoption  of  the  same  measure. 
Could  they  have  so  far  counteracted  the  influence 
of  the  customs  then  prevalent,  as  to  have  separated 
the  idea  of  a  preacher  from  that  of  a  deacon,  and  dis- 
tinguished their  coadjutors  by  this  name,  instead  of 
that  of  inspectors,  they  had  not  erred :  but  dropping 
that  office  into  practical  oblivion,  the  next  effort  ap- 
pears to  have  been,  to  justify  what  they  had  done ; 
and  as  this  task  naturally  devolved  upon  the  inventor, 
so  no  man  was  better  qualified  to  essay  its  accom- 
plishment, than  Calvin. 

The  first  imitators  of  his  consistorial  government, 
were  the  neighboring  cantons.     He  claimed  his  own 


I  In  his  Institutes  he  speaks  of  but  one  order.  Lib.iv.  c.  iv.  1. 
"  Ex  ordine  presbyterorum  partim  eligebantur  pastores  et  doc- 
tores:  reliqua  pars  censurre  morum  et  correctionibus  praeerat." 
But  in  his  commentaries,  which  he  wrote  in  1556,  lie  says:  (1  Tim. 
y.  17) — "  Sane  expopulo  deligebantur  graves  et  probati  homines, 
qui  una  cum  pastoribus  communi  consilio  et  authoritate  ecclesia, 
disciplinam  administrarent,  ac  essent  quasi  censores  moribus  cor- 
rigendis."  "Hunc  morem  Ambrosius  absolevisse  conqueritur," 
&c.  Ambros.  Oper.  torn.  iii.  p.  276.  But  the  writer  (Hilary 
the  deacon)  is  speaking-  only  of  old  age,  in  both  sexes  as  honora- 
ble; and  that,  both  in  the  synagogue  and  church,  nothing  was  wont 
to  be  done  without  the  advice  of  the  Seniors. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  245 

invention,  when  a  church  sought  his  advice,  upon  the 
form  they  had  taken  from  him.m  The  clergy  of 
Basil  desired  the  same  defence,  which  Calvin  had 
made  the  condition  of  his  return  to  Geneva.  After 
the  experiment  had  proved  successful,  Schaffhausen, 
Zurich,  and  Berne,  adopted  forms  of  church  govern- 
ment of  a  kindred  nature. 

The  Scottish  reformer  visited  Geneva  in  1554,  and 
became  a  disciple  of  Calvin.  Among  the  exiles 
both  at  Frankfort  and  Geneva,  Knox  used,  "  The  or- 
der of  Geneva." 

In  1559,  he  left  Geneva  for  the  last  time.  In  1560, 
he  was  appointed,  with  others,  to  report  in  writing  a 
book  for  common  order  and  uniformity  in  religion, 
for  the  church  of  Scotland. 

In  January  following,  the  first  book  of  discipline 
was  approved  conditionally  by  the  Secret  Council, 
and  adopted  in  practice  in  the  church,  but  was  never 
formally  established  by  an  act  of  parliament.  The 
superintendents  were  temporary  officers,  subject  to 
the  presbyteries,  and  without  the  claim  either  of  dig- 
nity or  permanency ;  the  form  was,  therefore,  mainly 
presbyterian,  but  rejected  imposition  of  hands  in  or- 
dination. In  1562,  the  session  of  Edinburgh  contained 
twelve  elders,  and  sixteen  deacons ;  the  latter  of 
whom  were  allowed  to  teach.  The  first  was  super- 
seded by  the  second  book  of  discipline,  which  restored 
imposition  of  hands  in  the  ordination  of  preachers,  and 
reduced  deacons  to  their  original  duties.  The  second 
was  agreed  on  by  the  General  Assembly  in  1578,  and 
was,  as  well  as  the  assembly  itself,  established  by  act 
of  Parliament,  at  Edinburgh,  in  June,  1592.  Thus 
was  the  office  of  lay  elders  brought  from  Geneva  to 
Scotland. 

Whether  Calvin  "  aimed  at  nothing  else  than  ren- 
dering the  government,  discipline,  and  doctrine  of  Ge- 

m    "Certe  nimix  esset  impudentise,  id  ipsum  improbare  in  vobis, 
quo  nos  tanquam  bono  et  salutari  utimur."     Epist.  55, 
■  w  2 


246  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

neva,  the  mould  and  rule  of  imitation  to  the  reformed 
churches  throughout  the  world,"  as  Mosheim  alleges, 
it  is  not  necessary  here  to  affirm  ;  but  that  his  learn- 
ing and  talents  rendered  his  example  in  church  gov- 
ernment conspicuous,  and  gained  him  an  influence  in 
distant  countries  co-extensive  with  the  Reformation, 
is  certain. 

Geneva  and  Lausanne,  from  their  contiguity  to 
France,  so  greatly  influenced  the  work  of  reforma- 
tion in  that  kingdom,  that  so  early  as  1550,  the  re- 
formed societies  of  that  country  were  generally  in 
communion  with  the  church  of  Geneva,  and  had 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  Calvin.  The  Gallic  confes- 
sion, exhibited  to  Charles  IX.  in  15G1,  thus  expresses 
their  views :  "  We  believe,  that  the  true  church  ought 
to  be  governed  by  that  discipline  which  our  Lord  Je- 
sus Christ  has  decreed ;  namely,  that  there  should  be 
in  it  pastors,  presbyters  or  seniors,  and  deacons  ;  that 
purity  of  doctrine  may  be  preserved,  vices  restrained, 
the  poor  and  others  in  affliction  provided  for,"  &c.  n 
In  that  same  year,  Charles  IX.  wrote  to  the  council 
of  Geneva,  complaining  of  their  having  received  and 
fostered  the  enemies  and  disturbers  of  France. 

Calvin  and  his  colleagues  were  for  that  cause  sum- 
moned before  them.  They  acknowledged,  that  the 
pastors  of  the  canton  had  sent  pious  men  to  regulate 
the  churches  in  France,  but  upon  their  solicitation, 
and  not  to  sow  trouble.  Also,  Calvin  professed 
himself  ready  to  answer  before  the  king  ;  but  the 
matter  was  not  prosecuted  further.  Nevertheless,  his 
letters  show  an  extensive  influence  upon  the  reforma- 
tion in  France. 

In  the  next  century,  when  the  subject  of  church 
government  was  better  understood,  the  churches 
were  left  by  the  acts  of  the  synod  of  Charenton  in 
1645,  to  their  choice  on  the  subject  of  ciders.     "We 

n  D.  XXIX.  —  "In  ea  sint  pastores,  presbvteri  sive  seniores,  et 
diaconi,"  &c. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  247 

agree  the  office  of  deacon  is  of  divine  appointment, 
and  that  it  belongs  to  their  office  to  receive,  lay  out, 
and  distribute  the  church's  stock  to  its  proper  use,  by 
the  direction  of  the  pastor,  and  the  brethren,  if  need 
be.  And  whereas  divers  are  of  opinion,  that  there 
is  also  the  office  of  ruling  elders,  who  labor  not  in 
word  and  doctrine,  and  others  think  otherwise,  we 
agree,  that  this  difference  make  no  breach  among 
us."0 

Calvin's  discipline  spread  from  France  to  the  Neth- 
erlands. For  these  churches,  when  scattered  by  per- 
secution, held  a  synod  at  Emden  in  1569,  at  which  it 
was  agreed — "  That  in  the  French  congregations,  the 
Geneva  catechism  might  be  held;  and  in  the  Dutch, 
that  of  Heidelberg."  Also,  they  declared  that,  "No 
church  shall  have,  or  exercise  dominion  over  another, 
and  no  minister,  elder,  or  deacon,  shall  bear  rule  over 
others  of  the  same  degree ;"  which  is  Calvin's  order. 

The  first  presbytery  erected  in  England,  was  con- 
vened in  1572,  when  eleven  elders  were  chosen,  and 
their  proceedings  were  entitled,  "  The  orders  of 
Wardsworth  ;"  imitating  the  style  of  the  order  of  the 
church  at  Geneva. 

These  Presbyterians  chiefly  consisted  of  exiles, 
who  had  returned  from  Geneva,  Frankfort,  &c.  to 
England,  after  the  death  of  the  bloody  Mary ;  and 
conformed  more  nearly  to  the  order  of  Calvin  than 
Knox  was  able  to  do ;  having  neither  Synods  nor  a 
General  Assembly.  The  Independents,  whether  origi- 
nating in  England  in  the  end  of  the  sixteenth,  or  in 
Holland  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  at 
whatsoever  period  they  adopted  their  charitable  regu- 
lation, that  neither  the  adoption  nor  rejection  of  the 
office  of  lay  elders,  should  make  any  breach  among 
them,  have  certainly,  so  far,  yielded  to  the  influence  of 
the  polity  of  Calvin. 

In  the  Presbyterian  church  in  the  United  States,  a 

o    Quick,  p.  472.     Third  synod,  &.c.  ch.  xiii.  s.  5. 


248  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

similar  compromise  has  obtained ;  and  every  congre- 
gation is  at  liberty  to  have  elders,  or  deacons,  or  both  ; 
and  to  elect  them  in  their  own  way.  The  ordination 
of  whom  is  without  imposition  of  hands,  because  it  is 
so  in  Scotland ;  and  Knox  omitted  the  rite  because  he 
observed  it  was  so  at  Geneva  ;  or  the  novelty  of  such 
an  ordination,  like  that  of  a  presbyter,  to  constitute 
him  a  bishop,  might  have  produced  the  delay  in  its 
adoption,  lest  suspicion  and  investigation  should  have 
been  awakened ;  and  the  authority  and  previous  ex- 
ample should  have  been  demanded.  In  which  event, 
the  one  could  no  more  be  supported  than  the  other. 
If  they  be  presbyters,  they  should  receive  ordination 
by  a  presbytery.  But  we  charge  them  as  deacons, 
and  they  do  the  work  of  such.  Yet  even  thus,  the 
mode  of  their  ordination  in  the  Presbyterian  church 
merits  a  revision. 

It  has  now  fairly  resulted  from  this  investigation, 
that  a  special  form  of  ecclesiastical  government  was 
adopted  by  the  Genevese  at  the  Reformation ;  not 
because  it  wTas  found  by  Scriptural  precept  or  example 
to  have  been  the  original  apostolic  scheme ;  but  be- 
cause the  nearest  approach  to  the  true  one,  which  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  the  canton,  and  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  times  would  admit.  The  learned  and  pru- 
dent reformer  has  shown,  that  he  did  wish  a  presbyte- 
ry, but  a  consistory  was  all  that  he  could  obtain  ;  for 
the  reformation  of  the  canton  was  seen  to  be  imprac- 
ticable, unless  his  party  could  have  the  ascendency  in 
clerical  councils;  and  this  was  impossible,  without  the 
introduction  of  laymen.  Yet  this  design  was  not 
prominent ;  they  were  associated  as  inspectors  of  the 
conduct,  and  so  as  a  defence  against  the  wiles  of  the 
ecclesiastics. 

Had  Calvin  justified  the  expedient  by  the  necessity 
of  the  case,  he  would  have  betrayed  his  design,  and 
prevented  others  from  the  benefit  of  his  example  ;  but 
he  gave  ease  to  his  conscience,  and  plausibility  to  his 
conduct,  by  seeking  a  defence  from  the   Scriptures. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  249 

And  his  opinion  was  readily  adopted,  because  eccle- 
siastics, a  few  reformers  excepted,  were  every  where 
inimical  to  the  Reformation,  and  disposed  to  rivet  the 
chains  of  papal  despotism.  It  was  natural,  therefore, 
that  "the  pattern  on  the  mount,"  as  it  has  been  called, 
which  had  proved  so  successful  at  Geneva,  should  be 
followed  by  others,  and  become  a  similar  defence 
against  ecclesiastical  fraud  and  oppression. 


TO  J.  L. 

The  argument  from  the  Scriptures  has  not  yet  ar- 
rived ;  matters  of  fact,  accruing  since  the  sacred 
record,  have  been  the  inquiry.  Hilary's  words  were 
adduced  only  as  testimony  of  the  state  of  the  church 
then  present :  his  opinion  of  things  prior  to  his  time 
would  be  mere  hearsay.  When  we  take  up  the  holy 
Word,  it  will  speak  for  itself;  no  interpreter  can  be 
trusted,  but  Hooker  will  not  be  forgotten  on  Rom.  xii. 
7,  8.  The  fathers  are  miserable  commentators; 
Hilary  not  excepted,  though  without  lawn-sleeves ; 
yet  are  they,  from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  competent 
witnesses  of  facts,  which  were  under  their  own  sight 
and  hearing. 

Hilary  the  Younger,  represented  the  same  kind  of 
seniors  to  be  in  every  nation,  and  in  the  synagogue, 
which  were  in  the  church ;  (Ambros.  torn.  iii.  p.  276 ;) 
they  were  consequently  not  officers.  Also,  by  censur- 
ing, not  the  omission  of  an  office,  but  that  pride, 
which,  by  neglect  of  consulting  the  old  men,  suffered 
the  custom  to  become  obsolete,  he  supposed  the  seniors, 
of  whom  he  spoke,  still  to  exist,  who  were,  of  course, 
laymen.  J.  L.  admits,  that  these  seniors  were  "  not  a 
third  order  in  the  church,"  and  J.  P.  W.  asks  no  more. 
That  "  these  elders — were  the  deacons,"  J.  L.  is  at 


250  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,    &C. 

liberty  to  prove,  if  he  can;  could  he  be  successful,  the 
discovery  would  be  some  excuse  for  all  of  us  in  the 
Presbyterian  church,  who  ordain  and  charge  men  as 
deacons,  because  the  word  is  so ;  and  afterwards  call 
them  elders,  because  such  is  the  custom. 

What  J.  L.  demands  has  been  already  shown.*  The 
exaltation  of  servants,  Siaxovoi,,  to  the  office  of  teachers ; 
and  the  wisdom  of  Calvin  in  obliterating,  rather  than 
degrading,  deacons ;  when,  availing  himself  of  the  an- 
archy of  his  canton,  he  placed  laymen  as  inspectors,  but 
really  for  protectors,  in  his  co?isi  story,  have  already 
passed  in  detail. 

P  "  Ai-JKOVoi  iiSoaTiv  tHcta-TOi  tocv  impovlaiv  /ui]a.>.a/2tiv  euro  vev 
i%_a.pi?rlnbs)flr.c  stplou,"  &c.  Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  i.  §  86.  By  the 
synod  of  Ancyra,  A.  D.  314,  it  was  decreed,  that  those  deacons 
who  succumbed  to  persecution,  should  not  */>7sv  %  7rcTn^iov  ^vsf^s^s'v 
h  wpva-o-uv,  &c.  Canon  II.  "  Diaconi  ergo  ordo  est,  accipere  a 
sacerdote  et  sic  dare  plebi."     Ambros.  tom.  iv.  p.  779. 


SECTION    XXV. 


The  primitive  slate  of  the  church  having  been  sought  from  credible  witnesses  of 
the  facts,  without  regard  to  their  opinions,  or  hearsays;  and  the  changes 
marked  from  the  commencement  of  the  second  to  the  termination  of  the  fifth 
century,  and  having  seen  the  successive  introduction  of  parochial  and  dioce- 
san episcopacy,  the.  canonical  ordination  and  human  authority  of  the  latter, 
and  the  creation  of  quasi  presbyters  by  Calvin,  we  are  prepared  better  to  un- 
derstand the  New  Testament  by  the  rejection  of  these  novelties-  But  bishops 
are  by  some  supposed  to  be  the  successors  of  the  evangelists,  and  Timothy  is- 
madebishop  of  Ephesus. — How  Timothy  received  authority  and  for  what 
purpose.  An  evangelist  before  he  came  to  Ephesus.  He  ivas  left  by  Paul 
at  Ephesus,  the  last  time  Paul  was  there,  Timothy  having  returned  thither  af- 
ter PauV  s  first  letter  to  the  Corinthians.  Timothy  left  Ephesus  after  or- 
daining presbyters  there,  and  came  to  Paul  in  Macedonia,  before  his  return 
to  Jerusalem  and  first  imprisonment.  The  first  letter  to  Timothy  was  before 
he  left  Ephesus  to  go  to  Paul  in  Macedonia,  and  instructed  him  in  choosing 
and  ordaining  the  presbyters.  He  accompanied  Paul  to  Jerusalem  and 
Rome,  where  he  was  during  the  Apostle1  s  first  imprisonment.  The  second 
letter  to  Timollu/  was  written  during  the  second  imprisonment,  and  disco- 
vers tliat  Timothy  was  not  then  at  Ephesus;  it  calls  him  to  Rome;  and  it 
no  where  appears  that  Timothy  ever  returned  to  Ephesus  after  ordaining 
the  elders  there. 


The  facts  in  the  history  of  the  church,  which  might 
aid  us  in  deciding  upon  the  nature  of  the  offices  men- 
tioned in  the  New  Testament,  having  been  investigat- 
ed ;  we  are  prepared  to  inquire  into  the  written  word, 
on  the  matters  of  church  government.  Although  the 
particular  form  is  but  a  mean  to  an  end,  and  of  no  vi- 
tal importance ;  yet  it  is  expedient  to  defend  the  cause 
which  God  honors,  against  those  exclusive  pretensions 
which  have  been  founded  in  usurpation. 

Two  things  having  been  established;  that  episco- 
pacy, whether  parochial  or  diocesan,  was  not  in  exis- 


252  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

tence  at  the  commencement  of  the  age  which  next  fol- 
lowed the  days  of  the  apostles,  but  arose  afterwards 
step  by  step ;  and  that  lay  presbyters  were  never  heard 
of  till  necessity  drove  Calvin  to  the  expedient;  they 
ought  to  have  no  place  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
New  Testament. 

But  it  so  happens,  that  the  conformity  in  duties  be- 
tween the  diocesan  bishop  and  the  apostle  and  primi- 
tive evangelist;  and  the  contrast  of  the  oversight  of 
an  individual  church  by  its  presbyters,  with  an  episco- 
pate in  after  ages ;  are  now  adopted  as  arguments  to 
prove,  contrary  to  the  verity  of  facts,  that  diocesan 
bishops  are  actually  the  successors  in  office  of  the 
apostles  and  evangelists,  and  not  of  the  presbyters  in 
the  churches.  Thus  Timothy  and  Titus  are  exhibited 
as  scriptural  examples  of  bishops,  though  never  once 
designated  by  that  name  in  the  sacred  records.  Titus 
is  described  by  Paul  as  his  "partner"  and  "fellow-la- 
borer"* Of  Timothy  he  also  speaks,  as  his  "fellow- 
laborer"  and  an  "evangelist."*  Their  work  appears 
to  have  been  to  ordain  bishops,  in  the  sense  of  presby- 
ters. Timothy  was  invested  with  an  office,  "by  prophe- 
cy with  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  presbytery."  e 
And  in  another  epistle,  Paul  speaks  of  the  "gift  of  God 
which  was  in  him  by  the  impositio?i  of  his  ha?ids."d  These 
texts,  we  have  seen,  were  differently  understood  in 
successive  ages,  according  to  the  progressive  advances 
of  episcopacy.6 

This  commission  was  given  him  before  Paul  had 
visited  Ephesus,  and  without  relation  to  the  people  of 
one  place  more  than  another.  It  was  in  its  nature  uni- 
versal, extending  alike  to   the  whole  church,  and  con- 


a  Kotvavo;  e/ja;  nai   tie    v/u.*;   o-wipyo;.     2  Cor.   viii.  23. 

b  'S.pyoy    ttqiiktov    eu ayFiKtrl cu .     2   Tim.   iv.    5. 

c  Aii  7rpo$>»leiu.e  f*i"et  iTlbim;  Txt  "/iipaii  7rpi<r/2ulspteu.  1  Tim. 
iv.  14. 

dyctpKfW-t  t;u  0s;i/>  o  tain  *?  vat  Six  t;ic  6T/5:-rsa'c  tchv  %upri;r 
/aw.     2  Tim.  i.  6. 

e  Vide  Section  xxiii. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  253 

ferring  every  power  necessary  to  planting,  watering, 
and  governing  the  churches,  wherever  he  should 
come,  if  not  superseded  by  the  presence  of  an  apostle. 
The  office  was  like  those  of  apostle  and  prophet, 
extraordinary  and  unconnected  with  any  particular 
charge,  Ephes.  iv.  11.  But  in  whatsoever  church  he 
preached,  he  could  as  evangelist  ordain  pastors,  or 
bishops,  or  there  was  no  propriety  in  the  caution,  "lay 
hands  suddenly  on  no  man."  This  office  was  superior 
to  that  of  "pastors  even  teachers." 

Evangelists  were  not  personally  instructed  and  com- 
missioned by  Christ ;  nor  had  they  the  extraordinary 
gifts  in  equal  extent,  nor  the  unerring  assistance,  or  in- 
spiration of  the  apostles,  for  the  writings  of  Mark  and 
Luke  were  received  upon  the  authority  of  Peter  and 
Paul. 

That  Paul  and  Timothy  were  together  at  Ephesus, 
and  that  Paul  left  him  there  when  he  went  on  some  oc- 
casion into  Macedonia,  may  be  plainly  inferred  from 
1  Tim.  i.  3.  "I  besought  thee  to  abide  still  at  Ephesus, 
when  I  went  into  Macedonia,"  The  time  to  which 
there  is  here  an  allusion  is  the  more  easily  ascertained, 
because  the  apostle  is  recorded  to  have  been  twice 
only  at  Ephesus;  on  the  first  occasion,  he  merely 
called  on  his  voyage  from  Corinth  and  Jerusalem ;  on 
the  second,  he  went  from  Ephesus  into  Macedonia,  ac- 
cording to  the  words  of  the  epistle. 

That  Timothy  was  left  at  Ephesus,  when"  Paul,  ex- 
pelled by  the  riot,  went  into  Macedonia,  obtains  satis- 
factory proofs.  Before  he  wrote  his  first  epistle  to 
the  Corinthians,  Paul  sent  Timothy  and  Erastus  into 
Macedonia,  but  he  himself  remained  in  Asia  for  some 
time.  Acts  xix.  22.  1  Cor.  iv.  17.  xvi.  10.  In  the  first 
letter  to  the  Corinthians,  which  he  wrote  at  Ephesus, 
and  sent  by  Titus  to  Corinth,  he  mentioned  his  purpose 
of  coming  to  them,  but  not  immediately ;  of  which 
Luke  also  informs  us,  Acts  xix.  21,  and  desired  them, 
if  Timothy  came  to  them,  1  Cor.  xvi.  10,  11,  to  con- 

X 


254  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

duct  him  forth  in  peace,  that  he  might  come  to  Paul, 
then  at  Ephesus,  for  he  looked  for  him,  with  the  bre- 
thren. When  he  closed  that  letter,  he  was  expecting 
Timothy's  return,  which  that  letter  might  also  have 
hastened.  Paul  remained  at  Ephesus,  on  this  visit,  the 
space  of  three  years.  Acts  xx.  31.  There  is  therefore 
no  reason  to  suppose,  that  he  was  disappointed  in  his 
expectation  of  the  arrival  of  Timothy  from  Corinth  at 
Ephesus,  before  he  went  into  Macedonia ;  and  if  so, 
he  might  have  left  him  there,  as  he  at  some  period 
certainly  did.  1  Tim.  i.  3.  He  had  intended  to  go  by 
Corinth  into  Macedonia,  2  Cor.  i.  15,  16,  but  changed 
his  mind  and  went  by  Troas  thither.  1  Cor.  xvi.  5 ;  2 
Cor.  ii.  12,  13.  Whilst  in  Macedonia,  he  wrote  his 
first  letter  to  Timothy,  for  he  proposed  to  him  to  re- 
main at  Ephesus  until  he  should  call  there  on  his  way 
to  Jerusalem.  1  Tim.  i.  3;  iii.  14,  15.  The  words  im- 
ply, that  Paul  might  tarry  some  time ;  and  that  he  did 
so  before  he  went  into  Greece,  is  fairly  implied  in  the 
expression,  "And  when  he  had  gone  over  those  parts, 
and  given  them  much  exhortation,  he  came  into 
Greece."  Acts  xx.  2.  Timothy  was  advised,  solicited, 
or  besought  (rtapExoa^cra)  to  abide  still  at  Ephesus,  which 
gave  him  liberty  to  exercise  his  discretion,  but  several 
motives  must  have  influenced  him  to  go  to  the  apostle. 
The  enemies  at  Ephesus  were  numerous  and  violent; 
Timothy  was  young ;  his  affection  for  Paul  ardent ; 
the  request  of  Paul  that  he  should  abide  at  Ephesus 
was  not  peremptory ;  and  Paul  told  him  he  expected 
to  tarry  a  long  time.  Also  Timothy  had  been,  from 
their  commencement,  familiarly  acquainted  with  the 
churches  in  Macedonia  and  Greece.  Accordingly  we 
find  Timothy  in  Macedonia  when  Paul  wrote  his  se- 
cond epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  1  Cor.  i.  1.  The 
apostle  went  from  Macedonia  into  Greece,  Acts  xx.  2, 
as  he  had  promised  in  that  letter,  chap.  xiii.  1,  and 
abode  there  three  months.  Acts  xx.  3.  Timothy  was 
with  him  at  Corinth,  for  he  sends  his  salutations  to  the 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  255 

Romans,  Rom.  xvi.  21,  in  that  famous  epistle  written 
from  thence.f 

That  there  was  sufficient  time  for  Paul  to  have  writ- 
ten from  Macedonia  to  Timothy  at  Ephesus,  and  for 
Timothy  to  have  spent  some  months  at  Ephesus,  before 
he  came  to  Paul  in  Macedonia,  appears  from  the  time 
he  waited  for  Titus  at  Troas,  2  Cor.  ii.  12,  13,  his  de- 
termination not  to  go  to  Corinth  till  he  could  do  it 
without  heaviness,  2  Cor.  ii.  1,  his  distress  in  Macedo- 
nia before  Titus  arrived,  2  Cor.  vii.  5,  and  his  success 
in  raising  charities  for  the  saints  in  Judea,  2  Cor.  viii. 
2,  3 ;  ix.  4.  He  had  intended  to  tarry  at  Ephesus  un- 
til Pentecost,  1  Cor.  xvi,  8,  but  went  sooner,  Acts  xx.  1. 
He  passed  on  to  Jerusalem  at  another  Pentecost,  Acts 
xx.  16 ;  all  which  time  he  was  in  Macedonia,  except 
three  months.  Acts  xx.  3. 

That  Paul  expected  to  spend  so  much  time  in  Ma- 
cedonia, and  Greece,  may  be  collected  from  his  inti- 
mation 1  Cor.  xvi.  6,  that  he  might  spend  the  winter 
with  the  Corinthian  church.  The  apostle's  purpose 
of  sailing  from  Corinth  was  disappointed  by  the  insid- 
iousness  of  his  own  countrymen;  he  therefore  went 
up  into  Macedonia  again,  that  he  might  pass  over  to 
Troas  with  his  companions.  Timothy  was  among 
those  who  crossed  first.  Acts  xx.  3,  5.  Paul's  disap- 
pointment in  sailing  from  Corinth,  and  his  wish  to 
reach  Jerusalem  by  Pentecost,  prevented  the  call  he 
intended  at  Ephesus,  1  Tim.  iii.  14,  15,  but  he  landed 
at  Miletus,  and  sent  for  the  elders  of  the  church  at 
Ephesus. 

The  directions  of  the  apostle  in  the  third  chapter  of 
the  first  epistle  to  Timothy,  fairly  imply  that  he  had 
left  the  church  at  Ephesus,  according  to  his  usual  prac- 
tice, without  officers ;  for  he  gives  this  evangelist  not 
a  new  commission,  he  already  had  power  to  ordain, 
but  instructions  as  to  the  choice  of  bishops,  that  is  pres- 

f  Compare  Acts  xviii.  2,  with  Rom.  xvi.  3.  Vide  Acts  19,  xviii. 
26. 1  Cor.  xvi.  19. 


256  THE  PRIMITIVE  GOVERNMENT 

byters,  and  deacons.  These  had  been  complied  with 
before  he  landed  at  Miletus.  Acts  xx.  17.  This  record 
of  the  existence  of  elders  at  Ephesus,  compared  with 
the  directions  given  to  Timothy,  not  only  renders  it 
probable  that  Timothy  had  ordained  them,  but  fortifies 
the  presumption  that  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy  was 
written  in  Macedonia,  before  this  visit  to  Jerusalem, 
and  consequently  before  his  imprisonment. 

The  language  "I  going  (xopsvo/juvot)  into  Macedonia, 
besought  thee  to  abide  still  at  Ephesus,"  did  not  form  a 
permanent  connexion  between  Timothy  and  Ephesus. 
At  the  very  greatest  extent,  the  instructions  given  in 
this  letter  were  of  a  continuance  only  till  Paul  should 
come  to  him  (s«j  tpx°pa*)  1  Tim.  iv.  13 ;  iii.  14.  But  it 
is  certain,  that  Timothy  did  not  remain  at  Ephesus, 
till  Paul  passed  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem. 

The  second  epistle  of  Timothy  will  prove  itself  writ- 
ten by  Paul  when  a  pi-isoner  at  Rome;  and  at  least  es- 
tablishes the  absence  of  the  evangelist  from  his  spirit- 
ual father,  at  the  time  it  was  written.  But  he  was  at 
Rome  in  the  time  of  the  first  imprisonment,  as  has; 
been  proved  by  his  having  been  joined  with  Paul  in 
the  letters  to  the  Colossians,  Philippians  and  Philemon. 
Demas  and  Mark  were  also  there  in  the  first  imprison- 
ment, Col.  iv.  10. 4,  but  absent  at  the  writing  of  the  se- 
cond to  Timothy.  2  Tim.  iv.  10,  11. 

It  is  therefore  an  error  to  suppose  it  to  have  been 
written  before  the  epistle  to  the  Colossians,  Philippians, 
and  Philemon,  during  the  first  imprisonment.  Also  in 
2  Tim.  iv.  20,  Paul  tells  him,  Erastus  abode  at  Corinth; 
but  this  needed  not  to  have  been  told  to  Timothy,  if 
Paul  meant  that  Erastus  abode  at  Corinth,  when  he 
went  to  Jerusalem,  and  so  to  Rome,  for  Timothy 
was  then  with  him,  and  must  have  known  the  circum- 
stance, had  it  been  so.  In  like  manner  he  says,  ibid. 
"Trophimus  have  I  left  at  Miletum,  sick."  But  Tro- 
phimus  was  not  left  at  any  place  on  the  voyage  to  Je- 
rusalem, for  he  was  there  and  the  occasion  of  the  jea- 
lousies of  the  Jews.  Acts  xxi.  29. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  257 

These  two  facts,  compared  with  this,  which  appears 
in  the  epistle,  that  it  was  written  by  Paul  a  prisoner  at 
Rome,  afford  sufficient  certainty,  that  there  was  a  se- 
cond imprisonment  when  this  letter  was  written. 

But  it  by  no  means  follows,  that  Timothy  was  at 
Ephesus  when  the  second  epistle  was  written.  This 
ought  not  to  be  assumed,  but  shown,  If  Timothy  was 
then  at  Ephesus,  why  should  he  have  been  told.  "I 
have  sent  Tychicus  to  Ephesus?"  2  Tim.  iv.  12.  He 
must  have  arrived  at  that  place  before  the  letter,  and 
the  fact  could  have  been  then  known.  Also  Tychicus 
needed  no  introduction  to  Timothy.  Had  Timothy 
been  at  Ephesus,  Paul  would  not  have  sent  him  to 
Troas,  for  articles  he  had  left  there.  It  appears  more 
probable,  that  Timothy  was,  at  the  time  the  epistle  was 
sent  to  him,  at  Troas,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  that 
place.  The  salutations  will  not  establish  the  destina- 
tion of  the  epistle.  Onesiphorus  resided  in  Asia,  but 
the  particular  place  of  his  abode  is  not  known.  He 
helped  Paul  both  at  Ephesus,  and  Rome.  Also  Aquila, 
who  had  resided  at  Rome,  at  Corinth,  at  Ephesus,  and 
again  at  Rome,  was  a  native  of  Pontus,  on  the  margin 
of  the  Euxine.  Trophimus,  whom  Paul  had  left  at 
Miletum,  was  an  Ephesian.  Acts  xxi.  29.  Miletus 
was  near  Ephesus,  and  Timothy  would  have  known 
the  facts,  unless  Miletum  in  Crete  was  the  place. 

If  Timothy  was  not  at  Ephesus  when  the  second 
letter  was  written  to  him,  there  is  no  evidence  of  his 
being  in  that  city,  after  Paul's  first  imprisonment.  But 
if  he  had  been  at  Ephesus,  he  must  have  then  left  it, 
the  letter  calling  him  to  Rome,  and  the  sacred  records 
speak  not  of  his  return  to  that  city.  The  second  epis- 
tle assigns  to  Timothy  no  other  duties  than  those  pro- 
per to  his  general  office  of  Evangelist ;  and  bears  no 
relation  to  a  particular  oversight  of  any  church  or 
churches. 

Some  writers  suppose  that  Paul,  when  he  landed  at 
Miletus  on  a  subsequent  voyage  to  Jerusalem,  left  Ti- 
2  x 


258  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

mothy  with  the  elders  of  the  church  at  Ephesus,  "to 
govern  them  in  his  absence."  But  nothing  of  the  kind 
was  spoken  on  the  occasion ;  and  instead  of  a  tempo- 
rary absence,  Paul  assured  the  elders  they  should  "see 
his  face  no  more."  In  1  Tim.  i.  3,  it  is  not  said,  "when 
I  went  to  Jerusalem,"  but  expressly,  "I  besought  thee 
to  abide  still  at  Ephesus,  when  I  went  into  Macedonia" 
Also  it  has  been  asserted,  that  the  apostle,  having 
placed  Timothy  at  Ephesus  prior  to  his  first  imprison- 
ment, "wrote  both  his  epistles  to  Timothy  while  a  pri- 
soner at  Rome."  But  Timothy  was  with  Paul  at 
Rome  during  a  part  of  the  first  imprisonment,  for  he 
is  joined  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Philippians,  Colossians, 
and  Philemon.  Salutations  also  might  have  been  ex- 
pected in  the  first  epistle  to  Timothy,  had  it  been  writ- 
ten from  Rome,as  in  those  to  the  Philippians,Colossians, 
Philemon,  and  the  Hebrews.  He  was  indeed  absent 
from  Rome  during  a  part  of  the  time  of  the  first  im- 
prisonment, but  Paul  expected  his  return,  Heb.  xiii.  23, 
and  so  far  was  he  from  hoping  to  come  unto  Timothy 
shortly,  as  expressed  in  1  Tim.  iii.  14,  he  promises,  if 
Timothy  come  shortly  to  Rome,  with  him  to  visit  the 
Hebrews.  Also  it  seems  strange,  if  Timothy  had  been 
at  Ephesus  when  the  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was  sent 
by  Tychicus,  Ephes.  vi.  21,  that  no  notice  whatever 
should  have  been  taken  of  the  beloved  youth. 

Another  hypothesis  is,  that  Paul,  when  the  Jews  de- 
terred him  from  sailing  from  Corinth,  and  he  deter- 
mined to  go  through  Macedonia  to  Jerusalem,  be- 
sought Timothy  to  abide  still  at  Ephesus;  to  which, 
when  Timothy  agreed,  he  went  forward  to  Troas, 
with  Aristarchus  and  the  rest;  and  whilst  waiting 
there  for  Paul,  Timothy  received  the  first  epistle  from 
the  apostle,  written  in  Macedonia.  But  this  is  a  de- 
parture from  the  correct  meaning  of  the  passage, 
which  is  that  Paul  besought  Timothy  npoa/xsivai,  to  con- 
tinue or  remain  at  the  place  where  Timothy  was  at 
the  time  he  was  thus  entreated.     Those  who  went  be- 


OP    CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  259 

fore  with  Timothy  to  Troas  are  represented  to  have 
accompanied  Paul  into  Asia.  Acts  xx.  4,  5.  This  cir- 
cumstance renders  it  an  improbable  supposition,  that 
Paul  should  write  so  long  and  important  a  letter  to  his 
.  fellow  traveller,  whom  he  must  overtake  in  a  few  days; 
and  wholly  unaccountable,  that  he  should  say  in  the 
letter,  1  Tim.  iii.  14,  15,  "these  things  write  I  unto  you, 
hoping  to  come  unto  thee  shortly ;  but  if  I  tarry  long," 
&c.  That  Paul  should  have  thus  purposed  to  come  to 
Timothy  unto  Ephesus,  but  really  at  Troas ;  and  in  a 
few  weeks  afterwards,  without  any  apparent  cause  for 
a  change  of  views,  should  have  said  at  Miletus  to  the 
elders  of  the  church  of  Ephesus,  "I  know  that  ye  all 
shall  see  my  face  no  more,"  Acts  xx.  25,  exhibits  a 
fluctuation  approximating  versatility.  If  Timothy  was 
on  this  occasion  left  with  the  officers  of  the  church  at 
Ephesus,  and  especially,  if  he  was  to  be  thenceforth 
their  diocesan  bishop,  it  is  strange  that  not  a  word  of 
either  of  those  circumstances  should  have  been  men- 
tioned to  those  elders.  But  so  far  was  the  apostle  from 
mentioning  their  subordination  unto,  or  support  of  the 
authority  of  young  Timothy,  that  he  enjoins  them; 
"take  heed  unto  yourselves,  and  to  all  the  flock  over 
which  the  Holy  Ghost  hath  made  you  sru,cfxar(ov$  bishops, 
to  feed  the  church  of  God,"  &c.  But  as  not  a  word  is 
said  of  leaving  Timothy  at  Miletus  so  it  is  improbable 
that  he  should  have  parted  from  Paul  there,  because 
he  appears  to  have  been  of  the  company  of  the  apos- 
tle, when  he  arrived  at  Rome,  where  he  is  joined,  with 
him  in  the  letters  which  have  been  mentioned. 

Others  allege,  that  Paul  visited  Ephesus  after  his 
first  imprisonment,  left  Timothy  there,  went  into  Ma- 
cedonia, and  from  thence  wrote  to  him  his  first  letter. 
They  build  upon  the  circumstances,  that  whilst  at  Rome 
he  had  written  to  Philemon  to  prepare  him  lodgings  at 
Colosse ;  and  that  he  had  told  the  Thilippians,  by  let- 
ter, he  trusted  he  should  shortly  come  to  them. 


260  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

This  opinion  is  much  more  respectable  than  either 
of  the  former ;  and  although  several  of  the  fathers  have 
positively  asserted,  what  is  incompatible  with  it,  that 
Paul  went  into  Spain,  after  his  first  imprisonment,  ac- 
cording to  his  purpose  expressed  Rom.  xv.  28,  yet, 
however  credible  these  holy  men  were,  their  conjec- 
tures deserve  often  but  little  regard.  That  Paul  was 
at  Philippi  after  his  imprisonment  is  probable,  because 
he  left  Erastus  at  Corinth.  2  Tim.  iv.  20.  Also  he  may 
have  been  at  Colosse,  if  he  left  Trophimus  at  Miletus ; 
but  the  place  was  Miletum.  ibid.  He  entertained  a 
purpose  subsequent  to  those,  of  visiting  Judea  with 
Timothy.  Heb.  xiii.  23.  This  may  have  been  first  ac- 
complished, and  Timothy  left  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Troas,  where  he  remained  till  the  second  epistle  was 
sent  to  him.  But  if  these  purposes  were  effectuated, 
which  is  matter  of  uncertainty,  there  is  not  a  word  to 
prove  even  an  intention  to  visit  Ephesus.  The  letter 
to  the  Ephesians  neither  mentions  Timothy,  nor  any 
coming  of  Paul.  But  Tychicus,  a  faithful  minister  of 
the  Lord,  and  companion  of  the  apostle  was  named  as 
sent  to  them.  Ephes.  vi.  21.  To  the  Ephesians  Paul 
had  said,  that  he  knew  they  should  "see  his  face  no 
more,"  and  it  is  no  where  shown  that  he  did.  The 
supposition  that  nevertheless  Paul  afterwards  went  to 
Ephesus  with  Timothy,  left  him  there,  with  the  request 
to  tarry  till  he  should  return  to  him,  and  then  went  into 
Macedonia,  and  wrote  his  first  epistle  to  Timothy,  is 
entirely  gratuitous  and  without  the  least  reason  appear- 
ing in  any  exigencies  of  the  Ephesian  church ;  which 
had  had  three  years  of  Paul's  labors,and  had  been  after- 
wards long  blessed  with  the  regular  administration  of 
the  ordinances  by  pastors  of  their  own,  besides  help 
from  Tychicus,  and  perhaps  others. 

If  Paul  constituted  Timothy  bishop  of  Ephesus,  it  is 
an  affirmative,  and  ought  to  be  proved.  But  Paul  tells 
the  presbyters  of  Ephesus  at  Miletus  that  the  Holy 


OF   CHRISTIAN   CHURCHES.  261 

Ghost  had  made  them  bishops  (erttoxortovi)  of  that  church. 
Those  elders  had  previously  received  the  powers 
which  were  necessary  to  ordaining  others ;  on 
Timothy  a  similar  presbytery  laid  their  hands  at  his 
ordination.  If  this  circumstance  will  not  show  that 
a  presbytery  could  have  ordained  an  evangelist,  an 
apostle  not  being  present,  because  evangelists  were 
extraordinary  officers  of  a  higher  grade ;  yet  it  must 
prove  that  a  presbytery  have  some  power  to  ordain. 
They  were  the  highest  fixed  officers  in  a  church,  and 
the  power  of  ordination  was  necessary  to  their  succes- 
sion. They  could  not  have  been  appointedcoadjutors  to 
Timothy,  in  the  ordination  of  themselves.  And  it  does 
not  appear  they  were  ordained  before  the  riot,  when 
he  was  left  at  Ephesus.  If  thus  there  were  no  officers 
in  that  church  when  Paul  left  it,  the  direction  to  Timo- 
thy, who  was  an  evangelist,  to  ordain  bishops,  that  is, 
elders  in  Ephesus,  was  to  do  no  more  than  his  duty ; 
which,  when  accomplished  in  any  church,  gave  such 
bishops,  or  elders,  power  to  continue  the  succession. 
If  the  presbyters  of  particular  churches  had  not  the 
power  of  ordination,  there  has  been  no  succession  in 
the  church  of  Christ  since  the  deaths  of  the  apostles 
and  evangelists ;  for  their  offices  expired  with  them 
and  there  were  no  officers  of  a  higher  order.  The 
office  of  Timothy  was  given  to  him  prior  to  his 
visiting  Ephesus.  The  duty  assigned  him  was  af- 
terwards declared  to  be  the  work  of  an  evangelist. 
2  Tim.  iv.  5.  His  appointment  to  Ephesus  was  tem- 
porary, being  limited,  at  the  farthest,  to  the  time  when 
Paul  should  come  to  him;  but  an  earlier  period  of  its 
termination  was  evidently  left  to  his  discretion,  which 
he  exercised  by  coming  to  Paul  into  Macedonia. 
Thus  there  was  a  disruption  of  the  connexion,  if  any 
had  been  fixed ;  but  none  such  was  intended ;  the 
epistle  was  neither  a  commission,  nor  an  ordination, 
but   a  mere  letter  of  instruction,  directing  him  in  the 


282  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,   &C. 

discharge  of  his  high  and  important  office  of  evan- 
gelist. 

If  Timothy  returned  to  Ephesus  from  Rome, 
which  is  not  recorded  in  the  Scriptures,  and  died 
there,  it  will  not  establish  that  he  ever  exercised, 
or  had  any  other  office,  than  that  of  an  evan- 
gelist. 


SECTION   XXVI. 


TIT'JS    WAS    ALSO    AN    EXTRAORDINARY   OFFICER,    AND    NOT    A    BISHOP 
OF    CRETE. 

He  was  Paul's  attendant  or  evangelist,  before  the  Gospel  was  carried  to  Crete, 
— Apollos  2S  named  in  the  epistle  to  Titus,  but  as  they  first  saw  Apollos  on 
Paul's  last  visit  to  Ephesus,  it  was  written  after  that  visit. — Every  move- 
ment of  Paul,  from  the  riot  at  Ephesus  unto  his  first  imprisonment,  is  given, 
and  events  show  he  did  not  leave  him  in  Crete  before  lie  went  to  Rome. — His 
letters  from  Rome  discover  that  Titus  was  not  with  him  during  his  first  im- 
prisonment, and  of  course  he  could  not  have  left  him  in  Crete  on  his  return 
from  Rome. — Titus  had  been  with  Paul  at  Jerusalem,  but  after  separating 
from  Barnabas,  he  was  no  more  with  Paul  till  his  second  visit  to  Ephesus  ; 
probably  he  was  sent  with  the  letter  to  the  Galatians,  and  met  Paul,  at  Ephe- 
sus on  his  last  visit  there,  from  whence  Paul  sent  him  to  Corinth,  and  he 
came  to  Paul  in  Macedonia,  and  ivas  sent  bad:  to  Corinth. — At  some 
period  after  his  first  imprisonment,  they  may  have  gone  to  Crete  ;  and  Titus 
being  left  there,  received  this  letter  as  a  discharge  from  thence,  when  a  substi- 
tute arrived. — He  was  at  Nicopolis  one  winter  with  Paul;  and  the  Scrip- 
tures leave  him  in  Dalmatia. 


When  Paul  and  Titus  first  went  to  Crete,  before 
any  church  had  been  planted  on  the  island,  Titus  must 
have  been  an  attendant  upon  Paul,  and  a  preacher, 
without  any  relation  unto,  or  connexion  with,  the  Cre- 
tans. Some  have  been  of  opinion,  that  Paul,  after  his 
liberation,  sailed  from  Rome  into  Asia,  and  taking 
Crete  in  his  way,  left  Titus  there.  But  it  does  not 
appear,  that  Titus  went  to  Rome  with  Paul,  when  he 
was  carried  a  prisoner  to  be  tried  by  Cossar.  Nor 
do  any  of  the  letters  written  from  Rome,  during  that 
imprisonment,  to  the  Ephesians,  Colossians,  Philip- 
pians,  or  Philemon,  mention  Titus,  or  even  imply  that 
he  was  at  Rome.     On  the  contrary,  his  presence  with 


264  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

Paul  is  excluded  by  Colossians  iv.  11,  "  These  only  are 
my  fellow-workers  unto  the  kingdom  of  God,  which 
have  been  a  comfort  unto  me;"  and  Titus  is  not 
named  as  one  of  them. 

That  Paul  purposed  to  visit  Colosse,  soon  after  his 
liberation,  appears  from  his  letter  to  Philemon,  ver.  22. 
But  the  bespeaking  of  lodgings  there  would  have  been 
premature,  if  it  had  been  intended  consequent  upon 
the  arduous  labors  of  planting  churches  in  Crete.  The 
epistle  to  Philemon  preceded  the  letter  to  the  Hebrews ; 
in  that,  Timothy  was  joined ;  in  this,  he  is  mentioned 
as  absent ;  "  with  whom  if  he  come  shortly,"  xiii.  23, 
Paul  promised  to  see  those  to  whom  the  letter  was 
sent.  He  had  gone,  probably,  to  Philippi,  Phil.  ii.  19. 
This  purpose  of  visiting  Judea  was,  therefore,  after 
his  direction  to  Philemon  to  procure  him  lodgings  at 
Colosse.  Accordingly,  some  have  imagined,  that 
Paul  went,  with  Timothy  and  Titus,  to  Crete,  where 
he  left  Titus,  and  proceeded  to  Judea,  returned 
through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  tarried  some  time  at  Co- 
losse, wrote  from  thence  to  Titus  in  Crete  to  meet  him 
at  Nicopolis,  came  to  Ephesus,  left  Timothy  there,  and 
proceeded  to  Macedonia.  But  neither  does  Titus  ap- 
pear to  have  been  with  Paul  at  Rome,  during  his  im- 
prisonment, nor  is  there  the  least  evidence  that  such  a 
journey  was  ever  undertaken  or  accomplished.  It 
was  the  opinion  of  Pool,  that  Paul  left  Titus  in  Crete, 
when  he  touched  there  a  prisoner,  on  his  passage  to 
Rome.  But  as  Titus  is  not  named  in  the  enumeration 
of  either  of  the  companies  who  left  Macedonia  for 
Jerusalem ;  nor  mentioned  in  the  history  of  their  go- 
ing to,  remaining  at,  or  coming  from  Jerusalem ;  nor 
spoken  of  in  the  account  of  the  voyage,  two  years 
afterwards  accomplished  from  Cresaria  to  Rome,  this 
opinion  seems  unfounded.  It  does  not  even  appear, 
that  Paul  landed  at  Crete  on  that  voyage. 

Many  have  thought  Paul,  at  or  prior  to  the  period 
of  his  separation  from  Barnabas,  sailed  with  Silas  and 
Titus  from  Cilicia  to   Crete,  and  returning  to   the 


OF    CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  265 

•Asiatic  continent,  left  Titus  to  perfect  the  settlement 
of  the  churches.  But  there  is  no  hint  of  such  a  thing 
in  the  Acts  or  any  of  the  Epistles.  Yet  the  native 
language  of  Titus  was  that  of  the  inhabitants  of  Crete. 
Also,  Titus,  who  was  in  years  and  office  older  than 
Timothy,  and  commanded  more  respect,  must  have 
been  as  competent  for  that  service,  as  he  was  to  settle 
the  differences  in  the  Corinthian  church,  or  to  preach 
the  gospel  among  the  rude  inhabitants  of  Dalmatia. 
But  conjectures  are  as  unprofitable,  as  endless.  Paul 
took  Titus  to  Jerusalem  with  him  and  Barnabas,  when 
the  exoneration  of  Gentile  converts  was  determined, 
Gal.  ii.  1,  and  though  a  Gentile,  he  was  not  required 
to  be  circumcised,  ver.  3.  But  we  cannot  collect 
from  the  Scriptures,  that  Titus  was  with  Paul  from 
the  time  of  his  separation  from  Barnabas,  during  all 
his  travels  through  Asia,  Macedonia,  and  Greece,  his 
subsequent  voyage  to  Jerusalem,  and  return  through 
the  Asiatic  churches ;  nor  until  he  came  to  Ephesus, 
when  Apollos,  from  Corinth,  met  him  at  that  place 
But  Titus  was  then  at  Ephesus,  for  Paul  sent  him 
thence  with  his  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  He 
might  have  been  previously  sent  with  the  epistle  to 
the  Galatians,  and  when  Paul  came  to  them,  have 
gone  down  with  the  apostle  and  his  company  to 
Ephesus. 

There  is  also  great  difficulty  in  ascertaining  when 
the  epistle  to  Titus  was  written.  Some  place  it  before 
the  imprisonment  of  Paul,  as  Lightfoot,  Lardner,  and 
other  learned  critics.  But  though  we  will  neither 
mark  the  precise  time  for  Paul's  going  with  Titus  into 
Crete,  nor  the  particular  winter  which  they  spent  to- 
gether at  Nicopolis  after  the  recall  of  Titus  from  that 
island ;  yet  it  appears  to  be  correct  to  assign  them, 
and  the  writing  of  the  epistle  to  Titus,  which  was  not 
from  Nicopolis,  Titus  iii.  12,  to  a  period  after  the  apos- 
tle's enlargement  at  Rome,  and  prior  to  his  return. 

From  the  direction,  Tit.  iii.  13,  to  bring  Apollos, 
Paul  was  then  acquainted  with  him,  but  he  was  not 
Y 


266  THE     PRIMITIVE     GOVERNMENT 

prior  to  his  second  coming  to  Ephesus,  (Acts  xviii.  24 
— 28.  xix.  1.  1  Cor.  xvi.  12.)  It  is  certain,  therefore, 
that  the  epistle  to  Titus  was  not  written  before  that 
period.  From  the  apostle's  arrival  at  Ephesus  until 
the  termination  of  his  first  imprisonment,21  there  was 
no  possibility  of  leaving  Titus  in  Crete,  Tit.  i.  5,  ex- 
cept he  landed  a  prisoner  there  on  his  voyage  to  Rome, 
and  had  Titus  then  with  him,  neither  of  which  ap- 
pears. 

a  This  portion  of  the  apostle's  labors,  being  usually  misrepre- 
sented, may  be  understood  by  any  who  will  open  unto  the  follow- 
ing proofs: 

From  Ephesus,  Paul,  having  sent  Erastus  and  Timothy  into 
Macedonia,  Acts  xix.  22;  1  Cor.  iv.  17,  xvi.  10,  wished  Apollos  to 
return  to  Corinth,  1  Cor.  xvi.  12,  to  settle  the  discord,  1  Cor.i.  10 
— 12,  but  he  refusing,  Titus  was  sent  with  the  first  epistle  to  that 
church,  2  Cor.  ii.  13,  vii.  6 — 13.  Paul  remaining  at  Ephesus  three 
years,  Acts  xx.  31,  Timothy  must  have  returned  to  him,  1  Cor. 
xvi.  11,  where  he  left  him,  1  Tim.  i.  3,  after  the  riot,  Acts  xx.  1, 
And  went  to  Troas,  expecting  to  meet  Titus,  2  Cor.  ii.  12.  Al- 
though he  found  an  "  open  door"  there,  ibid.  12,  he  went  into 
Macedonia,  ibid.  13,  and  whilst  ''going  over  those  parts,"  Acta 
xx.  2,  Titus  came  to  him,  2  Cor.  vii.  6,  and  Timothy  also;  for  he 
is  joined  in  the  second  epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  c.  i.  1,  with 
which  Titus  was  sent  back  to  Greece,  2  Cor.  viii.  18.  Then  Paul, 
who  had  intended  to  have  gone  by  Corinth  into  Macedonia,  2  Cor. 
i.  15,  23,  went  from  Macedonia  into  Greece,  and  abode  three 
months,  Acts  xx.  2,  3,  and  there  wrote  his  letter  to  the  Romans, 
Rom.  xv.  25,  26.  His  design  of  going  from  Corinth  to  Judea,  2 
Cor.  i.  16;  Rom.  xv.  31,  by  Ephesus,  1  Tim.  iii.  14,  iv.  13,  being 
prevented  by  the  Jews,  Acts  xx.  3,  he  went  through  Macedonia 
to  Troas,  ibid.  4,  5,  sailed  past  Ephesus,  called  at  Miletus,  Acts 
xx.  16,  IT,  and  came  to  Jerusalem,  Acts  xxi.  17.  There  being 
apprehended,  he  was  sent  to  Cxsarea,  and  remained  two  years  in 
prison,  till  Festus  came  into  office,  Acts  xxiv.  27,  who  sent  him 
by  sea  to  Italy,  Acts  xxvii.  1.  The  company  touched  at  Crete, 
Acts  xxvii.  8,  but  left  it,  ibid.  13,  21,  were  wrecked  on  Mileta, 
delayed  three  months,  ibid,  xxviii.  1,  11,  and  arrived  at  Rome,  ver. 
16,  where  Paul  remained  a  prisoner  in  his  house  for  two  years, 
ver.  30.  Here  he  wrote  his  epistle  to  the  Philippians,  Colosjians, 
and  Philemon,  in  which  Timothy  is  joined.  He  also  sent,  at  this 
time,  his  letter  to  the  Ephesians  by  Tychicus,  Timothy  having 
probably  gone  to  Philippi,  Phil.  ii.  19,  is  not  named;  but  was  ex- 
pected, when  he  wrote  to  the  Hebrews,  Heb.  xiii.  2,  3,  a  little  be- 
fore his  enlargement.  It  is,  therefore,  also  clear,  that  Paul  ha.d 
not  written  his  letter  to  Titus  prior  to  his  discharge  at  Rome. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  267 

Titus  was  appointed  to  discharge  an  important 
duty,  when  Paul  sent  him  to  Corinth,  with  his  first 
epistle  to  that  church,  to  rectify  the  disorders  of  a  con- 
gregation, which  possessed  high  advantages  for  lan- 
guage, science,  and  polished  manners,  and  in  which 
no  officers  appear  to  have  been  appointed.  He  was 
successful,  and  met  Paul  in  Macedonia,  to  communi- 
cate the  particulars  of  the  affairs  at  Corinth.  Being 
sent  to  them  with  the  second  epistle,  he  was  followed 
by  the  apostle  in  person.  This  confidential  service, 
compared  with  the  circumstance,  that  no  such  apology 
was  written  in  behalf  of  Titus,  as  of  Timothy,  affords 
some  ground  to  presume,  that  Paul  had  previous  ex- 
perience of  the  prudence  and  fidelity  of  Titus. 

The  epistle  to  Titus  expressly  limits  his  service  in 
Crete  to  the  arrival  of  a  substitute,  who  was  to  be  sent, 
Titus  iii.  12;  it  can  never,  therefore,  let  us  suppose  it 
to  have  been  written  when  it  may,  prove  a  permanent 
connexion  between  this  evangelist  and  the  churches  of 
Crete. 

As  Titus  was  to  ordain  elders  in  every  city,  it  may 
be  inferred,  there  were  none  until  constituted  by  him, 
this  being  one  of  the  things  left  undone,  to,  xsirtovla, 
Titus  i.  5.  To  suppose  there  were,  is  also  to  conflict 
with  his  practice  of  first  planting,  and  afterwards  or- 
daining. But  when  this  work  had  been  performed,  or 
progressed  in  by  him  for  some  time,  he  was  to 
meet  Paul  at  Nicopolis.  Those  whom  he  had  ordain- 
ed, and  others,  whom  Artemas,  or  Tychicus,  might 
afterwards  commission  as  elders,  continued,  it  may  be 
fairly  presumed,  the  succession  of  their  ordinary 
office,  as  every  where  else. 

If  it  could  be  proved,  that  Titus  died  in  Crete,  it 
would  no  more  establish  that  he  was  bishop  of  Crete, 
than  his  death  at  Corinth  or  at  Dalmatia,  where  the 
Scriptural  record  leaves  him,  (2  Tim.  iv.  10.)  would 
have  evinced  that  he  was  bishop  of  either  of  those 
places. 

The   verb   translated  "  appointed,"  (Titus  i.  5,)  is 


268  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERXMEiVT 

never  once  used  in  the  New  Testament  in  the  sense 
of,  to  ordain  to  an  office ;  but  was  in  this  instance 
designed  to  refer  Titus  to  the  particular  directions 
Paul  had  given  him,  when  he  left  him  in  Crete.  The 
apostle  gave  him  no  new  commission ;  he  was  to  ex- 
ercise the  office,  which  he  already  had,  towards  any 
people  to  whom  he  was  sent. 

The  apostles  received  an  extraordinary  commis- 
sion, which  may  be  said  to  have  virtually  contained 
all  the  offices,  which  have  been  legitimately  distin- 
guished by  the  church  since  the  day  of  Pentecost ;  and 
thus  they  were  the  predecessors  of  all  other  church 
officers.  This  high  commission  was  necessarily  limit- 
ed to  them,  (2  Cor.  i.  15.  Gal.  i.  12.  1  Cor.ix.  1.)  And 
there  is  little  more  propriety  in  bringing  the  apostolic 
office  down  to  a  level  with  that  of  presbyters  or  bish- 
ops, or  of  elevating  the  latter  to  the  grade  of  the  for- 
mer, than  of  supposing  every  governor  an  alderman, 
or  every  alderman  a  governor  of  a  state,  because  com- 
missioned by  such. 

Titus  exercised  an  office  evidently  inferior  to  that 
of  Paul,  for  he  went  and  came,  preached,  planted 
churches,  and  ordained  bishops  according  to  the  di- 
rections of  the  apostle.  He  attended  upon  his  person, 
and  did  the  work  of  an  apostle,  in  subordination  to 
him.  So  far  as  appears  from  the  New  Testament, 
his  work  was  not  fixed,  or  stationary,  more  than  that 
of  the  apostle;  but  it  as  far  exceeded  that  of  a  modern 
diocesan  bishop,  as  this  does  that  of  a  bishop  in  the 
days  of  the  apostles. 

The  practice  of  Paul  was  to  cany  the  gospel  into 
strange  places,  collect  worshiping  assemblies;  and 
afterwards  to  return  and  ordain  elders  of  those  who 
had  some  experience.  Pursuing  the  same  reasonable 
course,  he  first  collected  churches  in  Crete,  left  them 
worshiping  assemblies,  and  having  given  instructions 
to  Titus  to  oixlain  such  as  were  fit  to  be  officers  in  the 
churches,  he  left  him  to  accomplish  what  the  apostle 
would  have  done,  had  he  tarried  longer,  and  gone 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  269 

through  those  congregations  a  second  time.  Thus 
the  churches  in  Crete  were  furnished,  as  other  places 
were,  with  presbyters,  or  bishops,  who  could  after- 
wards continue  a  regular  administration  of  ordi- 
nances, by  commissioning  others  of  the  same  order  in 
succession. 


y2 


SECTION    XXVII. 


THE    FIXED    STATE,   AND    ORDINARY    OFFICERS    OF    THE     PRIMITIVE 
CHURCHES. 

Under  the  spiritual  dispensation  of  the  gospel,  the  extraordinary  officers  were 
the  apostles,  to  confer  gifts  and  teach  by  means  of  the  inspiratio?!  of  sugges- 
tion ;  the  evangelists,  to  plant  and  water  churches ;  prophets,  with  occasional 
inspiration  to  explain  the  Scriptures. —  The  gifts  are  described,  1  Cor.  xii. 
28;  Rom.  xii.  6 — 8;  Ephes.iv.  11,  12.  —  Officers  qualified  to  administer  or- 
dinances, succeeded  the  extraordinary  gifts,  and  churches,  which  were  Chris- 
tian societies,  were  substituted  for  the  synagogues. — But  two  orders  or  kinds 
were  adopted — presbyters,  who  were  called  also  pastors  andbishops,  to  teach, 
ordain,  administer  baptism,  and  the  eucharist,  and  to  govern,  and  deacons  to 
serve. — Among  the  presbyters,  abench  of  which  was  at  first  in  every  church, 
and  but  one  presbytery  in  a  society  or  city,  there  was  one  who  presided,  de- 
nominated 7rpoi?1a>s,  angel,  and  by  other  names ;  yet  the  ordination  was  not 
different  from  that  of  the  rest. — The  first  changewas  by  a  gradualtransition 
into  pastoral  or  parochial  episcopacy,  afterwards  into  diocesan — This  was 
established  by  the  council  of  Nice,  ami  at  length  produced  papacy. 

To  acquire  just  views  of  the  government  of  the 
churches  of  the  apostles'  days,  it  is  proper  to  abandon 
all  ideas  of  later  changes,  and  retain  only  that  know- 
ledge, which  Jewish  believers  had,  prior  to  the  descent 
of  the  Spirit  upon  them  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 

The  Mosaic  dispensation  terminated  with  the  rend- 
ing of  the  vail  of  the  temple,  Christ  having  been  a  min- 
ister of  the  circumcisiona  to  fulfil  the  law,  the  sacrifices 
of  which  were  to  be  superseded  by  his  own.  The 
seventy  disciples  could  not  have  been  officers  of  the 
kingdom  then  to  come ;  but,  like  those  of  the  Baptist, 

a   Rom.  xv.   8;  vide  Matt.  xv.  24,  xx.  28;  Matt.  x.  5.  viii.  4, 
xxviii.  19. 


THE     PRIMITIVE     GOVERNMENT,    &C  271 

than  whom  "  the  least  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven"  was 
greater,  (Matt.  xi.  11,)  they  were  only  Jews.  The 
twelve  received  a  commission,  just  before  the  ascen- 
sion, to  be  executed  after  the  descent  of  the  Spirit. 
Prior  to  such  inspiration,  they  had  neither  the  wisdom 
nor  power  requisite.  It  is  no  impeachment  of  the 
verity  of  the  record  to  say,  that  the  appointment  of 
Matthias  to  the  apostleship  was  equally  unauthorised, 
as  the  desire  of  a  temporal  kingdom,  Acts  i.  6,  both 
of  which  facts  have  been  recorded.  On  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  Peter  saw,  with  a  clearness  to  which  he 
had  been  a  stranger,  the  design  of  the  death  and  of 
the  exaltation  of  Christ,  the  nature  of  his  kingdom,  and 
the  importance  of  the  gift  of  the  Spirit ;  (chap.  ii.  4,  23, 
4,  34,  5.)  The  apostles  were  themselves  baptized  by 
the  Holy  Ghost,  and  afterwards,  by  virtue  of  their 
commission,  initiated  believers  with  water,  ver.  38, 
into  a  society  in  which  all  things  were  common,  chap, 
iv.  32.  Yet  belonging  to  the  stock  of  Israel,  they  attend- 
ed at  the  temple  and  the  synagogues,  (chap.  v.  42,  vi. 
9,)  but  commemorated,  on  its  own  day,  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ,  in  private  assemblies.  (Acts  xx.  7.  1  Cor. 
xi.  20.)  Their  increase  of  numbers  soon  required  the 
designation  of  seven  men,  of  spiritual  gifts,  and  wis- 
dom, to  serve  tables.  (Acts  vi.  1 — 5.)  Stephen  exer- 
cised his  gift  of  teaching,  ver.  8,  10.  Philip  viii.  12. 
Ananias  ix.  10,  and  other  saints,  when  dispersed  by 
persecution,  also  preached,  (viii.  4,)  and  baptized, 
(ver.  16.)  Saul,  arrested,  received  the  word  of  wis- 
dom from  Christ ;  his  sight  by  the  hands  of  Ananias, 
with  initiation  into  the  church  by  baptism,  and  an  in- 
troduction to  the  apostles  by  Barnabas,  a  Levite  of 
Cyprus.  The  restoration  of  Eneas  and  Tabitha,  the 
visions  of  Cornelius  and  Peter,  and  the  gift  of  tongues 
to  the  Gentiles  at  Cajsarea,  were  also  suited  to  the  dis- 
pensationof  the  Spirit.  The  enlargement  of  Peter,  Paul, 
and  Silas,  and  of  all  the  apostles  from  prisons ;  the  spi- 
ritualguidance  of  Philip,Peter,  and  especially  of  Paul  in 
his  travels ;  the  gifts  furnished  by  the  hands  of  the  apos- 


272  THE    PRIMITIVE   GOVERNMENT 

ties  to  their  fellow  laborers,  the  evangelists,  and  the 
churches;  the  impulses  of  the  prophets;  the  justness, 
consistency,  and  purity  of  the  doctrines,  which  were 
free  from  all  mixture  of  error,  and  by  immediate  sug- 
gestion to  the  apostle,  with  their  testimony,  lives,  and 
deaths;  the  judgments  which  fell  on  Ananias  and  Saphi- 
ra,  and  Elymas,  and  other  things ;  also,  the  power, 
influence,  and  opposition  of  the  Pagan  establishment; 
the  learning,  eloquence,  and  pride  of  the  philosophers; 
the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  the  Pharisees  and  Saddu- 
cees,  contrasted  with  the  imbecility  of  the  apostles, 
evince  the  fact  and  the  necessity  of  a  supernatural 
dispensation  of  the  gospel.b 

The  prophets  who  came  from  Jerusalem,  (Acts  xi. 
27,)  whose  inspiration  was  occasional,  and  those  men- 
tioned chap.  xiii.  ] ,  appear  to  have  been  inferior  only 
to  the  apostles.  (Eph.  iii.  5.)  By  some  of  these  the 
Holy  Spirit  directed  Barnabas  and  Saul  to  be  separat- 
ed, not  ordained,  for  they  were  inspired  teachers,  to 
preach  the  gospel  in  distant  places ;  the  former  being 
a  suitable  companion  for  the  apostle,  in  the  island  of 
his  nativity.  They  went  as  Jews  to  the  synagogues 
and  families  of  their  own  nation,  but  in  the  power  of 
the  Spirit ;  whilst  a  different  religion  might  have  ex- 
posed them  to  persecution,  and  to  the  effects  of  that 
discrimination  which  Gallio  humanely  refused  to  re- 
cognize. 

By  the  same  Spirit  the  apostles  were  able  to  vindi- 
cate their  own  authority,  and  competent  to  vouch  for 
those  whom  they  took  to  their  aid,  in  promulgating 
the  gospel,  and  establishing  societies.  (2  Cor.  viii.  23.) 
In  the  accomplishment  of  this  work,  ordination  was 
no  more  required,  than  in  the  preaching  of  John  and 
his  disciples,  or  of  the  seventy  sent  forth  by  Christ; 
or  in  the  case  of  him  who  cast  out  devils  with  the 

b  Vide  Acts  i.  8,  ii.  33,  viii.  15,  29,  x.  19,  44,  xi.  12,  15,  xiii. 
2,  xv.  8,  xvi.  6,  xx.  28;  1  Thess.  i.  5;  Gal.  iii.  3 — 5;  2  Cor.  iii. 
6—9;  Heb.  ii.  4. 


OP    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  273 

master's  approbation ;  or  of  Apollos,  both  before  and 
after  he  became  a  Christian ;  no  law  of  the  former 
dispensation,  nor  custom  in  Israel,  being  against  their 
preaching.  A  renunciation  of  their  ancient  customs 
might  have  offended  the  Jews  to  whom  they  came, 
and  forfeited  the  national  right  of  toleration. 

When  attending  on  the  seventh-day  worship,  they 
prophesied  and  taught  in  the  synagogues ;  on  the 
Lord's  day,  they  cultivated  spiritual  knowledge,  com- 
memorated his  resurrection,  and  by  degrees  over- 
coming their  Jewish  prejudices,  they  prepared  for 
that  separation,  which  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
was  soon  to  consummate. 

As  ordination  was  neither  required  nor  expedient 
in  planting  the  churches,  so  it  is  not  affirmed  of  an 
apostle,  a  prophet,  an  evangelist,  or  a  teacher,  but  all 
referred  to  gifts ;  unless  Timothy  be  an  exception ; 
and  in  making  him  such  wre  have  hesitated ;  for  why 
and  wThen  the  hands  of  the  presbytery  were  laid  on 
him ;  and  whether  Paul  joined,  the  relations  be- 
ing in  different  epistles,  and  without  reference  to  each 
other,  do  not  discover.  He  may  have  been  chosen 
and  ordained  a  presbyter,  and  afterwards  circumcised 
and  gifted  by  Paul  as  a  helping  evangelist.  Apollos 
preached  as  a  Jew  without  ordination  at  Alexandria 
and  Ephesus;  and  as  a  Christian  at  Corinth,  before  he 
had  seen  either  an  apostle,  an  evangelist,  or  a  pres- 
byter. The  laying  of  hands  on  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
was  after  the  apostleship  of  the  former ;  not  like  the 
imposition  by  Peter  and  John,  (Acts  viii.  17,)  for  the 
conferring  spiritual  gifts  as  apostles,  not  after  the  man- 
ner of  Paul,  who  imposed  his  hands  on  Timothy  as  an 
apostle.  The  attempts  to  locate  Timothy  and  Titus, 
have  been  shown  destitute  of  a  support ;  so  long  as 
the  residence  of  an  apostle,  or  evangelist,  at  any 
place,  became  expedient,  his  authority  was  still  gene- 
ral and  extraordinary.  As  no  preacher  of  the  gospel 
can  be  shown  to  have  been  ordained  by  imposition  of 
hands,  except  as  a  presbyter,  and  unto  a  particular 


274  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

church,  the  contrary  we  have  no  right  to  assume 
against  fact,  utility,  and  Jewish  examples.  The  three 
celebrated  texts  must  now  be  tested. 

Paul  wrote  his  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  before 
his  second  visit ;  that  church  being  left,  as  all  others 
were,  in  the  first  instance,  without  officers.  They 
partook  of  the  supper  as  other  churches  on  every 
Lord's  day,  after  the  manner  of  a  passover.  That 
they  had  received  spiritual  gifts, appears;  (chap.xii.8.) 
They  had  seen  an  apostle  in  Paul,  a  prophet  in  Silva- 
zius,  a  number  of  evangelists,  and  witnessed  various 
gifts,  as  healing,  and  tongues :  but  however  desirable 
the  gifts,  the  apostle  declared  to  them  "  a  more  excel- 
lent way ;"  for  sanctifying  influences  change  the  soul, 
and  prepare  for  heaven. 

The  terms  evangelist,  presbyter,  pastor,  bishop,  and 
deacon,  in  their  official  sense,  never  occurred  in  this 
epistle.  With  respect  to  the  terms,  helps,  avla^ni,  c 
and  governments,  xvj3epv?;est,s,  they  are  not  elsewhere 
found  in  the  New  Testament.  Being  abstract,  and 
placed  among  extraordinary  "  gifts,"  expressly  so  de- 
nominated in  verse  31,  they  could  have  signified  no- 
thing else  to  a  people  to  whom  had  been  dispensed 
only  spiritual  things.d  Nor  does  evidence  exist,  that 
any  officer  of  a  Christian  church  was  ever  called  by 
either  of  those  names.  That  interpretation  which 
makes  helps,  deacons,  and  governments,  lay-elders,  is 
not  only  conjectural  and  gratuitous,  but  preposterous ; 
for  it  places  the  order  of  deacons  before  that  of  pres- 
byters. 

Those  "  strangers"  from  Rome  at  the  feast  of  Pen- 
tecost, who  received  the  Holy  Spirit,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed, carried  home  the  gospel  to  the  metropolis; 
and  the  opposition  they  experienced  from  their  bre- 


c    1  Cor.   xii.   28. — Tl^iv    tL7ros1chtv;,   Siulipov   Trpcqula,!,    Tpilov 
d   To.  7rpcty/uu.1a.  ctKivo/utttv  7rvivy.cC]nin,     Chrysostom  in  loc 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  275 

thren,  procured  the  exile  of  all  the  Jews  from  Italy.  e 
When,  by  the  death  of  Claudius,  their  banishment 
ceased,  Paul  addressed  them  from  Corinth.  Urbanus, 
like  Titus,  was  a  fellow-laborer,  owepyos. 

But  of  presbyters  or  deacons  at  Rome,  or  of  the 
visit  of  any  one  who  might  ordain  them,  there  is  not 
a  word  at  the  period  of  the  epistle.  But  they  appear 
not  only  to  have  partaken  of  the  extraordinary  gifts, 
xaptapaJa,  which,  during  their  banishment,  they  had 
witnessed  in  the  churches  planted  by  the  apostles,  but 
to  have  been  in  danger  of  vanity  in  the  exercise  of 
them,  (Rom.  xii.  3.)  On  which  account,  they  were 
advised  to  consider  themselves  as  members  of  the 
same  body,  the  church ;  as  necessary  to  each  other  ; 
and  possessing  gifts  for  the  common  good.  These 
are  distinguished  into  two  kinds,  prophecy  and  ministry, 
Ttpofffltiav  and  8t,axoviav.{  Their  attendance  on  the  Sab- 
baths in  the  synagogues;  and  on  the  Lord's  days,  in 
at  least  four  private  houses,  is  unquestionable.  In  the 
synagogues,  as  Jews,  they  might  all  prophesy,  yield- 
ing precedence  to  priests  and  Levites,  and  exercise 
their  spiritual  gift,  Ttpofrflua,  by  rightly  expounding 
some  portion  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  synagogue 
worshipers.  The  caution  given  by  the  apostle,  (Rom. 
xii.  6,)  was  in  this  to  go  nothing  beyond  their  measure, 
or  contrary  to  the  scheme  of  the  gospel.  When  assem- 
bled as  Christians  alone,  they  had  to  accomplish  a 
service,  Siaxwiav,  in  the  discharge  of  which,  any  of  them, 
for  they  had  no  officers,  might  exercise  his  ^api^a. 
As  in  the  synagogues,  prophesy,  rtpo^lsiu,  a  sudden 
suggestion  of  truth  to  the  mind  by  the  Spirit,  must 
have  been  that  gift,  which  was  most  suited  to  awaken 

«    Sueton.  Claud,  c.  25. 

f  Rom.  xii.  6 — 8.  E^ov7ec  St  xxpto-fAul*. — tilt  frp:,<p>flita.v,  kxI*. 
tuv  a.vn.xt,yia.v  thc  •m^lirtu'  tilt  Si-jkoxizv,  iv  th  Si*x,ovicf  tile  a  SiSur- 
x.a>v,  tv  th  SiSu.sk*\1'J.'  nit  o  7r&pzx.A'hnv  ev  r»  JrnfaxWiasc  a  /utluSi- 
Saue,  ty  a.7rKCTnlr  o  7rpoi<rlct{Aivo;  tv  tTTrovSy  a  txtuv,  tv  ixapcryfli.  In 
1  Cor.  xii.  4,  5,  ^npis-fA*]*  are  distinguished  from  Sixkcvixi,  as  gifts 
from  their  application. 


276  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

and  instruct  the  Jews ;  so  the  ministry,  foaxona,  was 
in  its  various  branches  more  properly  their  Christian 
duty,  when  convened  in  their  own  evangelical  wor- 
ship. In  the  Biaxovia,  in  ver.  7,  8,  five  species  of  gifts 
were  exhibited,  not  in  the  abstract,  but  by  five  partici- 
ples. We  have  neither  any  warrant  from  the  gram- 
mar of  the  language,  to  refer  a  part  of  the  specifica- 
tion to  prophecy  ;S  nor  from  the  circumstances  of  the 
case,  to  suppose  that  the  writer  intended  an  anticipa- 
tion of  the  two  ordinary  offices,  which  they  were  af- 
terwards to  receive,  in  common  with  all  the  fixed 
churches,  for  no  such  description  could  be  necessary 
to  those  who  were  acquainted  with  the  government  of 
the  synagogues.  The  same  diversity  of  gifts  existed 
at  Corinth,  whence  he  was  writing ;  except  that 
wherever  there  was  an  apostle,  there  was  also  the 
word  of  wisdom,  and  power  of  conferring.  There  all 
might,  for  they  had  no  officers,  prophesy,  and  employ 
their  extraordinary  gifts,  if  without  confusion.  (1  Cor. 
xiv.  3,  5,  31,  39.) 

Theophylact  understood  rtpoialapivo;  in  the  sense  of 
jtpoalali;,  a  succourer,  (Rom.  xvi.  2,)  and  explains  it  by 
j3oq$uv.  Thus  the  sense  would  be,  let  him  that  gives 
his  substance,  psIaSiSovt,  do  it  with  simplicity  of  heart,  or 
liberality,  and  he  that  succours,  Ttpoiolajxivos,  the  distressed, 
do  it  with  diligence.  This  judgment  being  by  one 
whose  native  language  was  the  Greek,  deserves  high 
regard ;  but  other  Greek  writers,  for  the  most  part, 
understood  by  rtpoiiJafiivos,  either  presiding,  as  the  pri- 
mus presbyter,  or  acti?ig  as  patrons  to  strangers ;  but  in 

g  Tlfio<piilifj.\s  distinguished  from  SiS'n^n,  in  1  Cor.  xiv.  6,  com- 
pared with  the  miraculous  gift  of  faith,  1  Cor.  xiii.  2,  and  was  to 
be  abolished  as  well  as  the  gift  of  tongues,  ibid.  ver.  8.  Also, 
7rpoq»l*i  are  enumerated  in  Ephesians,  iv.  11,  before  evangelists, 
then  follow  SiSu.th.x\oi.  To  arrange,  therefore,  J'tSx.o-x.mv  under 
TrpoQnluu,  in  Rom.  xii.  6,  7,  is  also  to  confound  Scriptural  distinc- 
tions. But  fiauLcvi*.  is  of  extent  sufficient  to  include  the  five  spe- 
cies of  ministry  which  follow  it;  vide  1  Cor.  xii.  5;  Rom.  xi.  13; 
Col.  iv.  17;  Acts  vi.  1 — 4;  1  Cor.  iii.  5.  And  to  it  does  the  speci- 
fication naturally  belong. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHES.  277 

the  sense  of  an  inferior  presbyter,  we  have  found  no 
example  in  any  commentator  prior  to  the  Reforma- 
tion. 

When  the  epistle  to  the  Ephesians  was  written,  they 
had  presbyters,  or  bishops,  and  probably  deacons. 
To  them,  therefore,  he  cOuld  write,  both  of  the  extra- 
ordinary gifts,  and  the  fixed  officers. 

Having  exhorted  the  Ephesian  Christians  to  peace, 
and  spoken  of  the  church  as  one  body,  (chap.  iv.  3,  4,) 
and  of  each  member  as  a  partaker  of  the  grace  par- 
ticularly given  to  him,  (ver.  7,)  he  alleges,  that  Christ 
had  ascended  to  heaven,  that  he  might  confer  all  the 
gifts  that  should  be  necessary  to  the  promulgation  of 
the  gospel,  and  the  planting  of  the  churches,  (ver.  8, 
10.)  He  gave,  gifts,  not  ordinations,  some  to  be  apostles, 
some  to  be  prophets,  and  some  to  be  pastors  and  teachers, 
(ver.  ll.h  )  All  of  these  were  conferred  for  the  pre- 
paring of  the  saints  unto  the  ministry,  unto  the  building 
of  the  church;  (ver.  12.)  The  extraordinary  gifts 
necessary  to  planting  the  church  are  here  first  ex- 
pressed, and  the  design  of  them  was,  rfpo;  iw  xa7ap7«tytw, 
to  prepare  saints,  not  merely  for  preaching,  but  for  the 
duties  of  the  fixed  state,  et$  ipyov  Si'axoj/taj,  an  expression 
which  wrell  includes  both  of  the  ordinary  offices ;  and 
lest  his  meaning,  with  regard  to  the  design  of  these 
preparatory  gifts,  should  be  mistaken,  he  adds,  «j 
oixoSouqv  tov  soifialoi  -gov  Xpiflov1  and  to  express  that 
the  settled  state  of  the  church,  when  gifts  might  cease, 

h  Ephes.  iv.  11,  12.  YLcti  aulcc  (S'aix.i,  <rov;  /ntv,  *?Tocrc\cv;, 
rousfi,  vpoqiilzc,  <rzv;  Si,  luzyyixttrli.;,  <rou;Si,  TrotfXiva.^  kzi  SiSm<r- 
kaMvc,  7rpos  tov  xulxfilio-ftov  Tcev  ctyim,  itt  tpyov  Stanovi^,  a;  oikoSo- 
juttv  tow  arcepzli;  >rou  Xpislcv. 

»  Ver.  12  has  been  deemed  exegitical  of  SiSol;x.o\ovs  only,  and 
expressive  merely  of  the  preparation  of  holy  men  for  the  gospel 
ministry.  But  this  is  to  mistake  the  usual  discrimination  of  these 
distinct  gifts,  vide  Acts  xiii.  1;  1  Cor  xii.  28,  and  to  destroy  the 
argument  of  the  apostle,  who,  in  ver.  12,  shows  the  design  of  the 
gifts  of  the  Spirit  to  have  been  to  plant  a  church,  of  which  he 
wishes  the  Ephesians  to  be  found  peaceful  members. 

z 


278  THE     PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

had  not  then  arrived,  he  subjoins,  (ver.  13,)  ft^pt  xalav- 

Itjcaficv,  &C.k 

Apostles  were  inspired  in  all  things  necessary,  hav- 
ing the  word  of  wisdom.  Prophets  had  also  an  extra- 
ordinary gift,  being  guided  to  interpret  the  word  of 
God  truly  ;  this  is  the  word  of  knowledge.  Evangelists 
were  equally  extraordinary  teachers,  having  faith  in 
what  they  heard,  and  aided  the  apostles  in  preaching 
and  planting  churches.  The  labors  of  these  were  tem- 
porary and  general;  their  inspiration  was  not  sug- 
gestion, but  superintendence. 

The  term  "pastors,"  which  is  not  used  in  the  letters 
to  the  Corinthians  and  Romans,  is  correlative,  and  sup- 
poses a  flock ;  but  not  necessarily  an  official  connex- 
ion, nor  a  flock  to  every  shepherd,  for  in  Acts  xx.  28, 
Paul  had  charged  the  presbyters  of  the  Ephesian 
church,  when  they  met  him  at  Miletus,  to  take  heed — 
to  the  flock  i? i  which  the  Holy  Spirit  placed  them  bishops, 
to  feed  the  church,  Ttoifiutviw  tr,v  exx^r^iav.  This  charge  to 
the  elders  of  Ephesus  plainly  identifies  the  duties  im- 
plied in  the  words  pastor  and  bishop,  although  the  first 
is  not  expressed.  In  like  manner,  he  avoids  in  this 
epistle,  as  if  with  design,  the  names  presbyter  and 
bishop,  although  he  certainly  knew  this  class  of  of- 
ficers existed  in  that  church. 

Before  the  ordination  of  fxed  officers,  there  must 
have  been  numbers  who  acted  as  pastors,  who,  like  the 
apostles  and  the  rest,  were  not  the  ordinary  officers 
with  whom  particular  churches  were  afterwards  fur- 
nished, but  to  prepare  the  way  for  them,  7tpoj  xa.lapliep.ov. 
The  appointment  of  church  officers,  «j  tpyov  Siaxo^as, 
furnished  no  argument  for  the  truth  of  the  cause,  to 
be  compared  with  the  extraordinary  work  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  in  the  promulgation  and  planting  of  the  gospel 
by  the  irresistible  gifts  of  Chiist. 

The  history  of  facts  evinces,  that  the  extraordinary 
state  of  the  church  and  the  work  of  the  Spirit,  for 

k   Vide  Hoogeveen,  p.  97. 


OF    CHRISTIAN    CHURCHE&.  271) 

whom  the  apostles  waited  at  Jerusalem,  and  by  whom 
they  were  endued  with  power  from  on  high,  according 
to  promise,  (Luke  xxiv.  49,}  were  intended  to  gather 
converts  and  plant  churches ;  during  which  dispensa- 
tion of  the  Spirit,  the  apostles  needed  no  other  au- 
thority or  voucher  either  for  themselves  or  their  as- 
sistants.1 But  it  was  important  that  the  churches 
should  be  provided  with  officers  publicly  designated, 
and  with  distinguishing  ordinances,  for  their  future 
government  and  continuation,  when  the  extraordinary 
gifts  should  cease.  They  were,  accordingly,  for  this 
cause,  every  where  in  due  time,  furnished  with  of- 
ficers from  whom,  in  succession,  the  church  will  con- 
tinue till  the  end  of  the  world.  This  fixed  state  of  the 
churches  is  that  which  demands  our  next,  chief,  and 
final  attention. 

Every  one  discerns  that  baptism  and  the  supper 
were  in  names,  modes,  administrations,  and  subjects, 
conformed  to  ancient  rites.  The  gradual  substitution 
of  the  Christian  synagogue,  (Jam.  ii.  2,)  for  the  Jew- 
ish, among  those  who  still  retained  attachments  for 
the  old  order  of  things,  as  well  as  for  meats  and  days, 
produced  a  similarity  of  worship  and  officers. 

But  modern  synagogues  greatly  differ  from  those  of 
the  first  century."1     In  the  synagogues,  priests  and 

1  The  opinion  of  the  modern  Greek  church,  that  Paul  was  or- 
dained by  Ananias,  is  contrary  to  the  instructions  given  unto,  and 
professed  by  him.  Saul's  sight  was  to  be  restored,  and  he  was 
to  be  received  by  baptism.  The  idea  of  Selden,  that  he  was  or- 
dained as  a  scribe  in  the  synagogue,  and  that  he  bore  the  same 
rank  when  a  Christian,  is  possible,  so  far  as  regarded  the  Jews, 
but  not  necessary.  The  separation  of  Saul  with  Barnabas,  who 
had  brought  him  from  his  proper  work,  when  the  Spirit,  who 
seems  to  have  guided  all  his  apostolic  movements,  sent  him  back 
to  his  duty,  was  too  late  for  an  ordination,  had  any  been  proper. 
Paul,  who  best  knew,  rested  his  commission  as  an  apostle  on  the 
words  of  Christ;  and  the  Spirit  given  by  his  hands  was  the  distin- 
guishing proof  of  his  apostleship.  Gal.  i.  12;  2  Cor.  xii.  12;  Acts 
xix.  6,  viii.  15. 

m  Vitringa  ("  De  Synagoga")  has  enumerated  some  striking 
differences  in  lib.  ii.  c.  4.     He  has  also  shown  from  the  Jerusalem 


280 


THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 


levites  had  precedence,  but  as  the  worship  was  mo- 
ral, not  ceremonial,  they  might  serve  without  the 
dress  necessary  in  the  temple,  and  no  -Israelite  was 
excluded  from  any  of  the  offices,  of  what  tribe  soever, 
or  from  reading  in  the  synagogue,  without  bearing 
an  office.  Thus  it  was  the  custom,  tiuOoe,  both  of 
Christ  and  Paul  to  officiate  in  the  synagogue ;  (Luke 
iv.  16,  Acts  xvii.  1 — 7;)  and  no  where  in  the  New 
Testament  are  presbyters  called  priests,  or  deacons 
levites  ;  on  the  contrary,  Christ  alone  is  the  priest, 
and  all  the  officers  of  the  Christian  church  are  to  him 
deacons,  that  is,  ministers  or  servants. 

No  denomination  of  Christians  is  now  perfectly 
conformed  in  officers,  government,  and  worship,  to 
the  churches  which  were  planted  by  the  apostles  and 
evangelists,  nor  is  it  important  that  they  should  be. 

That  presbyters  and  deacons,  the  former  to  over- 
see and  teach,  the  latter  to  aid  them  in  the  eucharist 
and  the  temporal  concerns  of  the  society,  are  useful  in 
every  church,  are  matters  of  fact.  That  among  the 
presbyters,  a  first  among  equals,  primus  inter  pares,  an 
angel,  president,  or  bishop  existed,  of  the  same  ordi- 
nation and  order,  whose  power  advanced  afterwards 
from  a  single  church  to  cities,  provinces,  kingdoms, 
and  the  Christian  world,  has  been  shown  in  detail. 

Caution  must  be  exercised,  not  to  confound  names 
of  officers  with  the  appellative  senses  of  words.  Peter 
and  John  denominate  themselves  n^^vl^oi,  elders,  in 
allusion  to  their  age;  for  apostles  are  distinguished 
from  elders,  (Acts  xv.  G.)  Private  men  were  a,7to{lo%ot, 
messengers,  of  a  particular  church,  (2  Cor.  iii.  23,)  not 
apostles  of  Christ,  (Gal.  i.  12,  ii.  8.)  The  apostles  wrere 

Talmud,  the  Gemara,  and  other  Jewish  writings,  that  in  the  an- 
cient synagogues  the  an  and  o-djid  were  of  the  same  order,  and 
were  called  a>jp?,  elders,  whilst  the  m;n  were  vTrnptlaa,  dea- 
cons. In  exact  correspondence  we  find  the  ordinary  officers, 
originally  fixed  in  the  respective  churches,  to  have  been  the  s»y>o«o-- 
'lu>t,  and  other  on-HDiivrot,  or  Trpto-fitflipH,  all  of  the  same  order;  and 
the  itAKovoi,  subordinate. 


OF    CHRISTIAN"    CHURCHES.  281 

Siaxovoo,  (1  Cor.  iii.  5,)  servants  of  Christ,  not  the  dea- 
cons of  particular  societies.  The  first  fixed  officers 
of  the  churches  who  were  generally  seniors  in  age  or 
grace,  were  designated  by  the  name  elders,  Ttpetfvlipoi,, 
that  is,  LZTJp?,",  but  were  not  always  old  men.  By 
virtue  of  their  commission,  they  were  overseers, 
sitisxoTtoi,  bishops,  in  particular  churches.°J  They  were 
appointed  to  feed  and  rule  the  flock,  but  are  named  in 
no  instance  as  ordained  officers,  Tto^tvt $,  pastors.*  The 
presbyter  who  presided  in  the  worship  and  govern- 
ment of  each  church,  was  the  riposolut,  president,  or 
ruling  presbyter.q,  But  the  president  was  at  the  same 
time  one  of  the  elders,  or  bishops  of  the  same  church, 
by  virtue  of  the  same  ordination,  and  had  no  other, 
till  he  became  the  bishop  of  the  Cyprianic  age. 

If  there  were  two  kinds  of  elders,  there  were  also 
two  kinds  of  bishops;  because  elders  and  bishops 
were  the  same  officers/  When  the  duties  were  va- 
rious, and  the  elders  numerous,  prudence  must  have 
assigned  to  presbyters  respectively  different  employ- 
ments. A  number  of  them  in  the  same  church,  was, 
in  the  early  days  important,  not  only  because  of  per- 
secution, but  for  the  arduous  work  of  instructing  the 
Gentiles,  both  in  public  and  private.  Had  one  presby- 
ter only  been  fixed  in  each,  their  continuance  by  suc- 
cession would  have  been  obviously  too  precarious. 

'">  Acts  xiv.  23,  xs.  17;  Titus  i.  5;  James  v.  14;  1  Tim.  iv.  4; 
1  Peter  v.  1. 

o  Acts  xx.  28;  Titus  i.  5—7;  James  v.  14;  Phil.  i.  1;  1  Tim. 
iii.  2;  IPet.  v.  2. 

P  Acts  xx.  28,  iTrttTKcrouc  TroifActiviiv,  1  Pet.  v.  2,  Trotjuawttle — 
tTrax.oTrcuvln  for  C3>djid  of  the  synagogue,  is  from  one,  pascere  or 
gubernare,  and  is  equivalent  to  i7rt;ito7rot.  The  Hebrew  idiom  is  by 
both  apostles  here  carried  into  the  Greek. 

q  1  Tim.  v.  17,  the  7r^oi(1a>;  of  the  wpttGwrtptov  answered  unto 
the  an  of  the  o>ona.  He  was  probably  the  angel  in  each  of  the 
apocalyptic  churches. 

r  That  elder  and  bishop,  irpstSultpoc  and  trrtatoTro;,  designated 
the  same  officer,  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Acts  xx.  17,  with 
ver.  28;  also  Titus  i.  5,  with  ver.  7;  also  1  Peter  v.  1,  with  ver.  2, 
in  the  Greek  ;  the  translation  conceals  it. 

2  z 


282  THE     PRIMITIVE     GOVERNMENT 

The  duties  of  elders  and  deacons  were  not  the 
same.  Had  there  existed  mute  elders  in  the  apostolic 
churches,  deacons  would  have  been  unnecessary.  El- 
ders must  "feed  the  church,"  (Acts  xx.  28,)  and 
should  be  "  apt  to  teach ;"  but  this  was  not  expected  of 
deacons.s , 

That  there  were  but  two  orders  of  officers  in  the 
churches,  may  be  shown  by  the  addresses  and  letters 
to  them.  Thus  Paul  and  Timothy,  writing  to  the 
Philippians,  address  "  all  the  saints  in  Christ  Jesus, 
who  are  at  Philippi,  with  the  bishops  and  deacons." 
(Phil.  i.  1.)  If  elders  inferior  to  bishops,  had  existed 
in  that  favorite  church,  it  is  unaccountable,  that  they 
should  have  been  omitted,  and  the  deacons  named. 
The  first  letter  to  Timothy  was  framed  evidently  with 
such  views.  That  evangelist  received  no  directions 
about  the  ordination  of  ruling  elders,  his  business  was 
to  select  suitable  persons,  and  to  ordain  them  as  bish- 
ops ;  and  others,  of  different  qualifications,  as  deacons. 
The  same  two  orders,  elders  to  preside  and  to  preach 
the  gospel,  and  deacons  to  help  them  in  other  duties, 
were  to  be  ordained  by  Titus,  but  not  two  sorts  of 
elders. 

Peter,  (1  Epist.  v.  1 — 5,)  addressing  the  presbyters 
of  the  dispersion,  makes  no  distinction  between  them, 
but  supposes  them  clothed  with  the  same  office  and 
powers ;  and  equally  charges  all  and  every  one  of 
them:  "Feed  the  flock,"  xotfiavals — rcoi^viov,  act  as  pas- 
tors to  the  flock  "  of  God,  which  is  among  you,  taking 
the  oversight,"  txiaxortoovlc  s,  exerciswg  the  office  of  bishops, 
"  not  by  constraint,  but  willingly-"  Without  excep- 
tion, the  elders,  rtpscrfJitfepot,  were  all  bound  to  feed  and 


8  Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  1,  p.  137. — Ajdxovoi  <JiJu.c;n  ex.ttfl>i  ra>v 
Trapofltov  fAirxxu/iiiv  aw  tcu  tu^xpiflnbivlcs  ctflcv,  &c.  This  was 
within  forty  years  of  the  apostle  John.  So  in  the  Apostolical  Con- 
stitutions, which  are  later,  (.c  13,  p.  405,)  it  is  said,  "  O  Si  Siuxoyc: 
xxn^ilulo  irolnflOVi    K-xt    inStSiv;    xsytlce,   ct.iy.tt.     yjlfliv,     7rclnptoi 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  283 

govern  the  flock,  "  rto^uam?* — rtoinvioi;"  as  bishops,  "  tni.n- 

_,     n    " 

xortovv/ts. 

Presbyters  must  have  differed  in  their  gifts,  graces, 
and  talents ;  some  were  best  qualified  for  governing, 
others  for  exhorting  and  comforting,  others  for  teach- 
ing the  church  ;  that  each  should  exercise  his  particu- 
lar powers,  was  the  dictate  of  prudence. 

But  this  diversity  by  no  means  affected  the  identity 
of  the  order,  the  mode  of  ordination,  the  nature  of  the 
office,  or  the  obligation  of  its  duties. 

No  where  do  we  find,  in  the  history  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  any  but  the  one  order  of  presbyters. 
Paul  and  Barnabas  ordained  elders  in  every  church, 

rtpcepvlcpovs    xala.   exx%rtSiav,   (Acts    xiv.    23,)  without    any 

distinction  of  kinds.  There  appears  to  have  been  but 
one  class  of  them  at  Ephesus.     Paul  sent  fur  the  elders 

qf  the   church,    [.i.tlsxa'kSGalo    tforj   rtpiapvltpovs  "irfi   ixxXriMs. 

(Acts  xx.  17.)  They  came  to  Miletus;  if  any  of  them 
had.  been  ruling  elders,  in  the  modern  sense  of  those 
terms,  it  is  not  discernible  with  what  propriety  he 
could  have  charged,  them,  without  discrimination,  to 
take  heed  to  the  flock,  in  which  the  Holy  Spirit  had 
made  them  bishops,  £rii$xo7tov$,  and  noiy.at.vet,v,  to  act  as 
shepherds  to  the  church. 

The  question,  so  far  as  regards  ruling  elders,  freed 
from  embarrassment,  rests  upon  a  single  passage  of 
Scripture.  "  Let  the  elders  who  rule  well,  be  counted 
worthy  of  double  honor,  especially  they  who  labor  in 
word  and  doctrine.'"  These  words  express  a  di- 
versity in  the  exercises  of  the  presbyterial  office,  but 
not  in  the  office  itself.  If  it  can  be  shown  that  there 
existed  two  kinds  of  officers,  called  by  the  common 
name,  presbyters,  this  Scripture  may  be  then  under- 
stood to  relate  to  them.  But  the  text  alone  will  never 
establish  such  distinction,  because  it  can  be  literally 
understood  of  various  duties  of  the  same  order.  Pres- 


1    1   Tim.    V.   17.      O/   za).*;   -rp'.iT-lalz;  7T(%?(l\f]t$'A   Sittkhs  ritu»{ 
€Li-tou;SlO!a.v  ,u£hltr7x  ct  xc7rioc\1i;  iv   Xtycts  x.m  JiJ'xo-x.x.Ktx. 


284  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT 

byters  advanced  in  life,  grave  in  deportment,  and  of 
distinguished  prudence,  were  fitted  to  preside ;  others, 
if  of  more  ready  utterance,  and  of  competent  know- 
ledge, were  best  qualified  to  teach.  The  passage 
shows  that  some  presided,  that  others  labored,  in  word, 
and  that  the  honor,  or  rather  reward,  was  to  be 
proportioned  to  their  efforts,  not  according  to  grades, 
and  orders  never  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Pres- 
byter, as  an  officer  of  a  church,  means  in  every  other 
passage  in  the  New  Testament,  a  bishop,  in  the  ancient 
sense  of  the  term,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  infer  from 
this  text,  a  new  sort,  never  heard  of  till  the  Reforma- 
tion. If  there  be  any  priority,  it  is  a  precedence  over 
the  presbyters  themselves  ;  for  the  Ttfjosalu^  was  he  who 
presided  amongst  the  Ephori,  among  whom  was  parity ; 
or  who  governed  a  kingdom,  and  accordingly  Chrysos- 
tom  thought  him  both,  noi^v  and  StSasxcaoj,  a  pastor  and 
teacher.  So  far  is  the  word  ruling,  rtposoluli;,  from  signify- 
ing a  subordinate  class  of  presbyters,  that  Justin  Mar- 
tyr, within  half  a  century  of  John,"  makes  use  of  that 
identical  word  repeatedly,  to  mark  out  that  presbyter, 
who  gave  thanks  and  dispensed  the  elements  at  the  sa- 
cramental supper  to  the  deacons,  to  be  carried  to  the 
communicants.  The  presbyters,  who  presided,  Ttpofj- 
7«7«j,  on  the  most  solemn  occasions,  blessing  the  ele- 
ments, deserved  double  reward ;  but  especially  those, 
(xa%i{la  U,  who  performed  the  chief  labor  in  preaching. 
"  All  the  saints  salute  you  [xauila  Ss  ot,  but  chiefly  they 
that  are  of  Caesar's  household."  (Phil.  iv.  22.)  Who 
would  imagine  that  the  saints  of  Caesar's  household, 
were  of  a  different  kind  from  others  1  Their  labors 
might  be  different,  but  they  were  equally  saints ; 
pausta  only  expresses  that  their  salutations  Mere  either 
more  earnest,  or  presented  to  peculiar  notice. 

If  a  single  proof  of  the  existence  of  a  distinct  order 

u    Apol.    i.    p.    127.       Eu%xpio-7»<ra\lci;    Je    t&v    Tr^aa-la^oi;,    &.C. 
Page  131. — O  7rpoi;7co;  Six  ho-yov  thv  vovQ-isiz/ — uplos  trozqtfil&t  kxi 

0/V0f  KXl   vSup. 


OF     CHRISTIAN     CHURCHES.  285 

of  ruling  elders  can  be  shown  from  the  Scriptures,  it 
is  sufficient.  But  they  show,  that  two  orders  only 
were  constituted  by  the  apostles,  presbyters  or  bishops, 
and  deacons. 

The  form  of  government  at  present  used  in  the 
Presbyterian  church  has  retained  the  alternative  ;  the 
churches  have  their  election  of  two,  or  of  three  or- 
ders, and  thus  give  to  neither  side  just  ground  of  of- 
fence. In  it  we  cheerfully  acquiesce.  These  out- 
lines of  the  reasons  upon  which  three  orders  have 
been  refused,  in,  we  believe,  a  majority  of  our  church- 
es, have  been  reluctantly  given ;  but  the  confident 
style  of  several  recent  publications,  of  opposite  senti- 
ments, has  rendered  the  defence  of  our  own  opinion, 
and  that  of  our  fathers,  a  duty.  The  question  is  ex- 
tremely simple.  Did  such  a  distinct  intermediate 
order  exist  in  the  apostolic  churches?  Until  it  be 
shown,  either  by  fact  or  Scripture,  wre  may  safely 
adopt  the  negative,  both  as  to  the  lay  presbyter,  and 
the  diocesan  bishop.  But  we  have  found  nothing  for 
either,  except  hearsays,  opinions,  and  some  forged 
writings. 

The  presbyter  in  each  society,  with  a  president  at 
its  head,  passed  into  the  pastoral  form,  or  parochial 
episcopacy,  by  degrees  scarcely  perceptible.  The 
ulterior  transition  into  diocesan  episcopacy,  followed, 
as  the  necessary  result  of  the  restriction  of  each  city 
to  one  set  of  church  officers  ;  and  so  long  as  promo- 
tion was  exposure  to  persecution,  power  accumulated 
without  jealousy. 

Afterwards  when  Constantine  substituted  the  Chris- 
tian for  the  Pagan  hierarchy,  of  which  he  wTas,  by 
virtue  of  his  office,  the  pontifex  maximus,  the  church 
did  not  so  much  acquiesce  in  the  change,  as  exult  at 
the  establishment  of  Christianity.  The  western  por- 
tion advanced  by  slow,  but  certain,  steps  unto  papal 
domination.  It  was  not  till  the  Reformation,  that  the 
ground-work  was  laid  of  those  various  forms  of 
church  government,  which  at  present  appear  among 


286  THE    PRIMITIVE    GOVERNMENT,    &C. 

protestants.  They  were  deemed  then  to  be,  as  they 
really  are,  of  minor  importance ;  and,  in  fact,  received 
their  characteristic  features,  less  from  the  diversity 
of  the  hypotheses  of  the  reformers  in  different  coun- 
tries, than  from  the  political  circumstances  of  the  res- 
pective nations.  They  awaken  research,  without 
dividing  the  faithful ;  and  what  right  views  can  ob- 
scure, perfection  will  eventually  obliterate. 


"LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS." 


The  following  numbers  were  first  published  in  the  "Philadel- 
phian,"  of  the  year  1828,  as  answers  to  some  remarks  under  the 
same  title,  which  appeared  in  the  '*  Church  Register." 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 
Number  I. 


This  title  is  taken  from  the  Church  Register.  It,  at 
the  same  time,  points  to  the  cause,  and  expresses  the 
subject  of  our  inquiries.  The  alternative  being  ten- 
dered, "Prayer  may  be  called  the  making  known  of 
our  wants  to  a  superior  being,  and  our  desire  to  be  re- 
lieved from  them ;  or,  it  is  "the  offering  the  heart  to 
God ;"  we  accept  the  latter,  because  neither  angels 
nor  glorified  saints  can  help  us,  or  become  mediators. 
To  the  objection,  that  "  the  Omniscient  knows  our  wants 
long  before  they  existed,"  the  anonymous  writer  an- 
swers in  terms  suited  to  his  own  creed.  We  prefer  to 
say  the  author  of  all  good  governs  with  equal  particu- 
larity in  the  kingdoms  of  providence  and  grace :  in 
both  he  adopts  means,  among  which  are  often  the  du- 
ties assigned  to  moral  agents.  Their  liberty,  being 
essential  to  their  responsibility,  is  secure ;  whilst  their 
voluntary  actions  are  constituents  of  the  general 
scheme  of  events.  If  the  prayer  of  faith  be  thus 
a  mean  to  ensure  a  promised  blessing,  the  grace  is 
certain,  and  consequently  the  duty ;  and  the  purpose, 
the  fore-knowledge,  and  the  event  are  equally  sure, 
whilst  the  duty  of  praying  is  not  the  less  incumbent  ; 
and  as  in  every  other  case,  absolute  contingency  is 
wholly  excluded. 

When  he  says  that  "private  prayer,  is  that  pouring 
out  of  the  heart,  which  holds  the  soul  in  rapt  commu- 
nion with  spiritual  things ;"  and  afterwards  that  "this 
(order)  is  best  effected  in  public  prayer  by  the  use 
2A 


290  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

and  adoption  of  one  general  form ;  we  feel  no  other 
concern,  than  that  the  writer  would  carry  his  private 
devotion  to  the  public  sanctuary.  But  when  we  ob- 
served, by  the  second  number,  that  the  aim  of  the  wri- 
ter was  to  show  that,  "the  Jews  used  precomposed  and 
set  forms  of  prayer  in  their  public  religious  worship ;" 
and  that  such  was  "the  practice  of  our  blessed  Re- 
deemer, and  after  him,  of  his  disciples;"  the  two  num- 
bers were  seen  to  be  perfectly  in  character  for  their 
vehicle,  and  illy  suited  to  a  hemisphere,  where  liturgies 
are  not  rejected  by  dissenters,  but  by  the  mass  of  the 
people. 

Prayer  being  the  offering  up  of  the  desires  to  God, 
it  is  accomplished  with  or  without  words;  in  words 
which  are  our  own,  or  another's  ;  or  printed  or  written. 
There  ought,  therefore,  to  be  "  no  degradation,  no 
want  of  piety,-  no  proof  of  alienship,"  imputed  to  any 
individual,  or  denomination,  for  using  "prayers  pre- 
composed," nor  have  we  heard  of  any  such  thing; 
but  if  the  ancient  Jews  and  the  first  Christians  used  a 
public  liturgy,  it  would  seem  that  we,  who  have  none, 
must  be  the  aliens.  We  have  therefore  a  conceded 
excuse  for  parrying  this  charge  by  examining  its  sup- 
ports. 

The  first  is  taken  from  Exodus  xv.  the  song  of  Mo- 
ses and  the  children  of  Israel  by  the  Red  Sea;  "the 
words  and  tune  of  zchich  were  arranged  and  known 
before  all  the  people  joined  in  it;  and  therefore  it  is  a 
set  form."  This  would  have  been  in  point,  had  the 
question  been  of  singing  Psalms.  It  would  also  have 
been  relevant,  if  the  lawfulness  of  set  forms  in  prayer 
had  been  denied.  But  in  proof  of  the  use  of  "pre- 
composed and  set  forms  of  prayer  in  public  worship" 
of  the  Jews,  its  bearing  is  not  easily  discerned. 

Also  that  the  words  were  previously  "known  by 
them  all"  we  are  unable  to  infer  from  the  circum- 
stances. Printing  had  not  been  invented — the  song 
consists  of  nineteen  verses,  and  the  thousands  of  Israel 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  291 

were  numerous.  We  read  that  "Miriam  answered 
them;"  and  her  answer,  so  far  as  given,  was  the  first 
sentence  which  Moses  sang.  It  is  possible,  therefore, 
and  seems  to  us  probable,  that  those  who  knew  the  in- 
spired words,  sang  by  sentences,  and  others  responded. 
The  argument  from  a  particular  and  extraordinary 
occasion  to  a  universal  practice  is  inconclusive ;  as 
much  so  as  if  it  should  be  asserted,  that  Presbyterians 
follow  in  their  worship  a  liturgy,  because  they  sing  the 
psalms  of  David. 

The  second  proof  is  brought  from  Deuteronomy, 
xxi.  7-8.  The  answer  to  be  taken  of  the  elders  of  a 
city  next  unto  the  place  of  a  homicide,  where  the 
murderer  is  not  found.  "Our  hands  have  not  shed 
this  blood,  neither  did  our  eyes  see  it.  Be  merciful,  O 
Lord,  unto  thy  people  of  Israel,  whom  thou  hast  re- 
deemed, and  lay  not  innocent  blood  unto  thy  people  of 
Israel's  charge."  "This  is  a  prayer," — "  given  as  a 
form," — "a  precomposed  prayer."  So  is  every  oath, 
"so  help  me  God."  This  was  an  oath  of  purgation, 
which  was  appointed  by  law  to  be  taken  by  the  elders 
of  a  city,  under  such  circumstances,  to  clear  them- 
selves of  the  murder.  But  it  was  "precomposed  by 
God"  himself.  Yes,  the  theocracy  was  his,  and  he 
created  the  law.  But  it  constituted  no  part  of  a  liturgy, 
and  can  prove  none.  And  if  it  were,  it  would  only 
justify  a  prayer  book  of  divine  inspiration,  but  such 
never  had  existence. 

The  next  argument  is  drawn  from  the  benediction, 
Num.  vi.  24,  25,  26,  given  to  Aaron  and  the  priests 
to  be  officially  "put — upon  the  children  of  Israel." 
"That  it  is  a  form  cannot  be  questioned."  It  is  a  form 
of  a  benediction,  and  was  in  force  under  the  Jewish 
dispensation.  It  is  neither  obligatory  now,  nor  is  it 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  Jewish  liturgy,  but  af- 
fords a  presumption  of  the  contrary. 

"The  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak,  Judges  v.  affords 
another  evidence  in  favour  of  the  use  of  set  forms  on 


292  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

public  occasions,  in  the  earliest  period  of  the  Jewish 
church."  But  this  was  on  a  special  occasion,  and 
proves  not  a  general  practice ;  and  if  it  did,  it  extends 
to  psalms,  not  to  a  liturgy.  But  the  book  of  psalms, 
made  long  afterwards  with  few  exceptions,  evinces 
that  such  a  composition  had  not  been  previously  given 
them.  Also  a  song  given  by  inspiration  to  the  Jews  will 
not  justify  a  palming  an  uninspired  prayer  book  upon  the 
church  of  Christ.  In  singing  it  is  scarcely  possible, 
that  the  duty  should  be  accomplished  without  the  use 
of  precomposed  forms ;  but  for  prayer  no  such  neces- 
sity existed ;  thus  when  "  Ezra  blessed  the  Lord,  the 
great  God;  all  the  people  answered  amen,  amen,  with 
lifting  up  their  hands;  and  they  bowed  their  heads, 
and  worshipped  the  Lord  with  their  faces  to  the 
ground."  If  their  hands  were  up,  and  their  heads 
bowed,  and  their  faces  were  to  the  ground,  they  must 
have  uttered  amen,  amen,  without  prayer  books. 

Still  further,  this  writer  thinks  set  forms  of  prayer 
receive  a  "  testimony"  from  David's  appointing  "  the 
Levites  to  stand  every  morning  to  thank  and  praise 
the  Lord,  and  likewise  at  even."  This  language  leads 
the  reader  only  to  the  idea  of  singing  praises.  But 
had  it  expressed,  with  equal  clearness,  prayer,  there  is 
nothing  upon  which  to  found  an  opinion,  that  any 
prayers  were  written.  We  have  never  found  a  "  tes- 
timony" of  any  other  prayers  offered  at  the  temple, 
except  on  an  extraordinary  occasion,  than  those  which 
each  man  offered  alone.  We  have  authority  enough, 
that  the  law  was  read,  and  that  the  levites  "  gave  the 
sense  and  caused  them  to  understand  the  reading" 
without  recurring  to  Josephus.  He  was  a  Pharisee, 
and  not  more  credible  than  the  traditions  collected 
in  the  Talmud,  against  which  we  have  the  caution  of 
Christ  himself.  If  this  writer  will  look  into  the  He- 
brew prayers  now  used  in  the  synagogues,  he  will 
find  prayers  for  the  dead,  and  other  proofs  in  abun- 
dance that  they  are  of  modern  date. 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  293 

There  follows  a  sentence,  in  language  inferential, 
but  in  sentiment  unjustly  caustic.  "All  which  proves 
that  they,  although  in  their  religious  polity  guided  by 
God  himself,  left  neither  the  manner,  the  subject,  nor 
the  words  of  their  public  service  to  the  wild  and  varied 
imaginations  of  their  priests, — though  separated  by 
divine  appointment  for  God's  worship ;  neither  to  the 
practice  or  observance  of  private  judgment,  and  indi- 
vidual opinion."  They,  the  Jews,  left  neither,  &c.?  Did 
they  prescribe  to  the  priests?  Where  is  the  proof?  If 
by  public  service  be  meant  the  duties  of  the  priests'  of- 
fice, these  were  not  prescribed  by  the  people,  but  in 
the  ceremonial  law,  which  neither  contains,  nor  re- 
quires the  reading  of,  public  prayers.  If  "  their"  im- 
ply other  priests,  we  answer  there  is  no  priest  under 
the  gospel,  but  Christ  himself.  If  "wild  and  varied 
imaginations"  be  a  stroke  aimed  at  extempore  public 
prayers,  it  is  premature,  for  it  has  not  been  yet  shown 
that  God  has  required  set  forms.  The  concessions 
that  prayer  is  "the  offering  the  heart  to  God,"  and  that 
it  may  be  without  written  expressions  when  in  private, 
warrant  the  conclusion  that  forms  are  presented  to 
please  men,  not  God.  "Wild  and  varied  imagina- 
tions," appears  to  be  a  designed  imputation  upon  us, 
who  use  no  forms,  and  were  its  source  not  an  indivi- 
dual, would  justify  recrimination.  We  have  not  for- 
gotten the  objections  which  our  forefathers  made  to  the 
prayer  book,  and  feel  prepared  to  vindicate  at  all  times 
their  justice.  If  "private  judgment  and  individual 
opinion"  must  be  taken  away  from  our  prayers,  how 
are  they  "the  offering  the  heart  to  God?"  And  if  this 
be  absent,  words  are  not  prayers.  But  we  are  respon- 
sible to  God  only,  and  fallible  man  has  no  right  to  re- 
strain the  prayers  of  his  fellow  men. 

What  this  writer  shall  yet  effect,  remains  to  be  seen, 

but  in  the  Old  Testament  he  has  not  found  a  solitary 

proof,  that  in  the  ordinary  worship  of  the  ancient  Jews, 

they  offered  joint  prayers.      They  had  their  hours  of 

*  2a2 


294  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

prayer,  and  made  many  and  long  prayers,  differing  in 
"the  manner,  subjects  and  words,"  for  whilst  one  drew 
near  and  thanked  God,  that  he  was  not  as  a  publican 
then  in  his  view,  the  publican  stood  at  a  distance,  and 
could  only  say,  Lord  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner.  But 
neither  the  pharisee,  nor  publican  brought  a  written 
form,  or  opened  a  book;  nor  do  we  find  a  priest,  either 
in  parable  or  fact,  at  any  time  to  have  interfered  with 
the  prayers  of  the  people, 


Number  II. 


Prayer  is  a  personal  duty,  which  one  man  cannot 
discharge  for  another.  Those  who  claim  superior 
knowledge,  should  pray  for  us,  but  not  prescribe  our 
prayers.  If  inspiration  has  left  us  to  the  expression  of 
our  own  desires,  uninspired  men  may  not  restrict  us 
to  the  adoption  of  theirs.  God  demands  our  hearts, 
and  not  the  reading  of  forms  ;  which  may  be  lawful 
for  him  who  thinks  them  such,  but  not  to  him  who 
doubts  their  propriety.  As  in  joint  prayer,  by  the 
mental  adoption  of  so  much  as  we  approve,  we  make 
it  our  own ;  so  in  written  forms,  that  only  is  our 
prayer,  which  the  heart  offers  up  to  God.  That  by 
forms  the  weak  may  be  led  and  profited,  is  freely  con- 
ceded; also,  that  he  who  leads  in  the  public  duty, 
may  provide  a  form,  is  allowable,  though  rarely  ad- 
visable ;  but  that  any  should  presume  to  alter  the  pub- 
lic worship  which  God  has  appointed,  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  system  of  prayers,  which  he  has  neither 
made  nor  authorized,  is,  to  say  the  least,  of  extremely 
doubtful  propriety.  That  we  question  the  testimony, 
or  disregard  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  except 
when  they  favor  our  preconceived  ideas,  is  a  charge 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  295 

which  does  no  honor  to  the  anonymous  writer  in  the 
Church  Register,  and  we  hope  destitute  of  support, 
In  the  temple  service,  there  were  men  appointed  to 
sing,  and  their  psalms  were  necessarily  preconceived; 
but  that  the  prayers,  except  mere  benedictions,  were 
such,  should  be  proved.  We  know  only  that  each 
prayed  by  himself;  except  in  extraordinary  cases, 
when  the  prayers  were  new,  and  suited  to  the  oc- 
casion :  such  were  those  of  Solomon,  Asa,  Jehosaphat, 
Hezekiah,  and  Ezra.a  If  they  accommodated  their 
prayers  to  their  wants,  why  should  not  we  ]  If  in  their 
darker  dispensation  they  had  no  liturgy,  in  the  modern 
limited  sense  of  that  word,  why  should  we,  under  the 
light  of  the  gospel,  be  restricted  from  expressing  the 
desires  of  our  hearts  ? 

That  the  Saviour  worshipped  in  the  synagogue  and 
attended  in  the  temple,  and  fulfilled  all  righteousness, 
as  a  "  minister  of  the  circumcision,"  unto  his  death,  is 
certain.  But  that  therein  he  found  and  used  a  liturgy, 
is  begging  the  question.  If  Dr.  Lightfoot  could  have 
restored  it,  we  should  have  rejoiced  to  use  it,  so  far 
as  the  change  of  dispensations  would  allow,  and  would 
not  consent  to  exchange  it,  for  all  the  uninspired 
ones  that  have  been  since  contrived.  But  that  there 
was  no  such  thing,  can  be  made  as  clear  as  a  negative 
will  admit. 

He  gave  a  form  to  his  disciples  at  their  request,  as 
John  had  done  to  his.  This  was  suited  to  the  Jewish 
worship,  in  praying  for  the  coming  of  the  "  kingdom," 
which,  according  to  Daniel,  "  the  God  of  heaven 
would  set  up,"  and  in  asking  "  nothing  in  the  name"  of 
Christ ;  but  was  never  used  by  the  apostles,  or  first 
Christians  in  public,  so  far  as  known  to  us.  It  was 
soon,  nevertheless,  adopted  for  baptized  persons,  and 
refused  to  catechumens.  We  modify  its  meaning,  and 
prize  it,  making  it  our  pattern,  and,  in  some  instances, 

■  1  Kings  viii.  22;  2  Chron.  xiv.  11,  xx.  5;  Isaiah  xxxvii.  15, 
16;  Ezra  ix.  5,  6,  7 ■ 


296 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


adopting  its  words  as  a  form.  But  we  cannot  affirm 
with  this  writer — "  When  ye  pray,  ye  shall  say,  was  his 
preface  and  command,  by  which  we  are  to  under- 
stand, that  on  all  occasions  of  prayer,  whatever  else  is 
used,  this  must  not  be  omitted."  We  think  this  was 
the  preface,  or  introduction,  of  Christ's  answer  to  the 
request  of  his  disciples,  but  not  the  preface  of  the 
prayer  itself,  otherwise  it  must  still  be  offered  up  with 
the  prayer.  The  preface,  or  introduction,  of  the 
prayer,  seems  to  us  to  be,  "  Our  father  who  art  in 
heaven."  Nor  do  we  view  it  as  a  command,  for  then 
no  other  prayer  could  be  offered.  Also,  this  writer 
makes  the  Saviour  to  assert  in  general,  what  he  spoke 
under  peculiar  circumstances.  "  Lord  teach  us  to 
pray,  as  John  also  taught  his  disciples.  And  he  said 
unto  them,  when  ye  pray,  say,"  &c.  (Luke  xi.  1,  2.) 
"  Teach  us  to  pray,"  was  equivalent  unto,  Give  us  a 
pattern  of  prayer.  This  meaning  is  the  same  as  when 
he  said,  (Mat.  vi.  9,)  "  after  this  manner  pray  ye." 
The  plural  was  used  in  the  prayer,  because  the  an- 
swer given  by  the  Saviour,  and  his  address  on  the 
other  occasion,  were  in  each  instance,  to  more  than 
to  one  person. 

The  Lord's  prayer  "  is  a  sanction  for  set  forms,  in 
the  public  service  of  God,  practised  as  it  was  by  the 
Jews,  the  Saviour,  and  his  apostles,  which  rebuts  all 
reasoning."  That  a  single  prayer  made  under  the 
Mosaic  dispensation,  and  suited  to  it,  given  to  indi- 
viduals without  any  reference  to  public  worship,  and 
before  any  authority  had  issued  for  preaching  the  gos- 
pel, should  be  a  sanction  for  a  public  liturgy  in  the 
church  of  Christ,  is  a  position  which  "  rebuts,"  that  is, 
drives  back,  "  all  reasoning."  In  Matthew  vi.  the  Sa- 
viour directs  to  the  closet,  and  when  the  door  is  shut, 
to  pray  in  secret,  rather  than  ostentatiously,  as  the 
Pharisees,  to  make  prayers  in  public,  which  being  to 
be  seen,  were  long  and  individual,  not  joint.  When 
afterwards  his  disciples  asked  for  a  pattern,  and  he 
gave  the  same  to  them,  there  was  not  a  word  to  show, 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  297 

that  either  they  or  he  intended  this  for  public  worship. 
The  writer  having  failed  in  showing,  that  the  Jews  had 
any  public  form,  of  course  his  inference,  that  the  Sa- 
viour had  used  the  same,  is  wholly  without  foundation; 
and  his  conclusion,  that  the  apostles  pursued  a  form, 
because  their  master  did,  is  consequently  a  groundless 
supposition. 

That  joint  worship  is  expressly  required,  and  may 
also  be  argued  from  "oneness  of  profession,  doctrine, 
and  object,"  in  other  words,  one  faith,  one  hope,  one 
baptism,  one  God,  and  Father  of  all,  is  freely  and  uni- 
versally admitted ;  but  union  in  prayer  by  no  means 
requires,  that  there  should  be  written  forms ;  for  where 
two  or  three  determine  to  convene  to  pray  touching 
any  thing,  though  their  object  be  the  same,  their  peti- 
tions may  be  according  to  their  respective  views,  or  if 
one  prayer  be  offered,  in  which  the  rest  unite,  it  may 
be  expected  to  be  new,  and  suited  to  the  occasion,  not 
in  language  composed  without  reference  to  the  parti- 
cular case. 

To  "offend  on  one  point  is  to  be  guilty  of  all,"  when 
an  offence  is  committed  with  knowledge,  because  it  is 
a  denial  of  the  authority  of  the  lawgiver;  but  to  con- 
clude all  in  guilt,  who  conscientiously  prefer  to  pray 
without  the  use  of  unauthorized  forms,  does  indeed 
"rebut  all  reasoning."  Neither  the  ancient  Jews,  nor 
Jesus  Christ,  nor  his  apostles  have  been,  or  can  be 
shown,  to  have  used  a  liturgy,  or  system  of  written 
prayers;  nor  were  such  public  forms  in  use  in  the 
first  Christian  churches ;  when,  therefore,  we  offer  the 
desires  of  our  hearts  in  the  language  which  our  minds 
suggest,  we  follow  the  example  of  Christ,  his  apostles 
and  the  primitive  churches. 

Of  the  lawfulness,  or  even  expediency  of  using 
forms  of  prayer,  we  make  no  dispute,  and  often  re- 
commend them.  But  we  deny,  that  any  authority  to 
introduce  them  into  Christian  assemblies  can  be  fairly 
deduced  either  from  precept  or  example,  of  Christ  or 
his  apostles ;  and  that  they  were  either  necessary  to 


298  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

those  who  were  inspired,  or  at  all  important  to  the 
discharge  of  the  duty  of  public  prayer. 

In  the  early  persecutions,  the  books  of  the  Chris- 
tians were  sought  after,  and  burnt;  but  no  books  of 
prayers,  the  Scriptures  and  utensils  only  are  men- 
tioned. Thus  the  argument  against  the  use  of  written 
prayers,  from  a  total  silence,  is  equivalent  to  that 
against  images.  The  most  learned  amongst  the  ad- 
vocates of  written  forms,  assert  that  every  church 
was  left  to  its  own  creed  and  form  of  prayer;  and 
that  afterwards  the  churches  of  a  district  agreed  to  a 
conformity  among  themselves.  The  first  is  proved  by 
Sozomen,  who  asserts  this  of  a  church  which  arose 
from  another  ;  but  he  was  in  the  fifth  century.  The 
latter  is  supported  by  the  words  of  the  council  of  Mi- 
levis,  in  which  Augustine  sat ;  but  it  extended  only  to 
a  portion  of  Africa,  and  was  adopted  as  a  precaution 
against  Pelagianism. 

That  amen  was  spoken  aloud  at  the  end  of  prayers, 
appears  from  the  New  Testament ;  this  Jerom,  in  his 
day,  the  cotemporary  of  Augustine  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, compared  to  the  thunder  of  heaven.b  The  sur- 
sum  corda,  raise  your  hearts,  has  been  referred  to  the 
apostle  James,  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  but  too  late,  for 
he  died  A.  D.  380.  No  mention  of  public  forms  of 
prayer  was  made  in  the  first  centuries,  unless  the 
Lord's  prayer,  the  benediction,  and  sacramental 
words  be  exceptions.  Justin  Martyr,  A.  D.  140,  de- 
scribes to  the  emperor,  the  worship  of  a  Christian  as- 
sembly, in  which  the  presiding  presbyter  prayed  "  ac- 
cording to  his  ability."  Tert Lillian,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century,  says,  in  his  Apology  for  Chris- 
tianity, "  We  look  up  to  heaven  with  hands  expanded, 
because  pure  ;  with  heads  uncovered,  because  we  are 
not  ashamed;  finally,  without  a  monitor,  because, 
from  the  heart  we  pray  for  rulers — army — senate — 

b    "Ad  similitudinem  celestis  tonitru,  amen  reboat." — Prstf. 
adGalatas. 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  299 

people — the  world."  Basil,  in  the  fourth  century,  ad- 
vises how  to  pray ;  to  begin  with  addressing  God,  "  as 
much  as  you  can,"  in  the  words  of  Scripture ;  then 
give  thanks ;  then  confess ;  then  offer  your  petitions. 
He  prepared  not  a  liturgy,  but  hymns  to  be  sung  in 
alternate  verses ;  a  practice  which  was  in  early  and 
general  use.  Much  error  has  been  incurred,  by  tak- 
ing several  words  which  expressed  hymns  to  signify 
prayers.  The  centuriators  themselves  were  thus  de- 
ceived. That  in  the  fifth  century,  "  scarcely  two 
prayed  alike,"  is  affirmed  by  Socrates,  the  historian,  of 
his  own  age.  Gregory  the  First,  instituted  "  the 
whole  institution  of  the  mass,"  and  how  much  it  re- 
sembles the  Pagan  worship,  it  is  painful  to  behold. 
Pope  Adrian,  A.  D.  796,  confirmed  the  use  of  Grego- 
ry's, against  a  false  one,  called  the  mass  of  Ambrose. 
Such  is  the  origin  of  that  liturgy,  which  the  pious 
writer  in  the  Church  Register  deems  it  sinful  to  neg- 
lect. 

Believing  that  liturgies,  confirmations,  festivals  and 
canonical  ordinations  as  manifestly  rest  upon  merely 
human  authority,  as  do  image  worship,  prayers  to 
saints,  and  prayers  for  the  dead;  we  feel,  nevertheless, 
no  disposition  to  dispute  with  those  who  follow  them. 
Self-vindication  is  our  only  aim ;  for  when  it  is  assert- 
ed that  the  liturgy  is  commanded  of  God,  and  that  we 
are  guilty  of  the  whole  law  for  neglecting  this  duty, 
we  stand  impeached,  either  of  the  ignorance  of  those 
things,  which  we,  who  teach  others,  ought  to  investi- 
gate; or  of  that,  which  is  far  worse,  of  disingenuous- 
ness.  We  doubt  not  the  conscientiousness  of  this 
writer,  but  we  do  question  the  correctness  of  his  infor- 
mation ;  yet,  at  the  same  time,  acknowledge  the  duty 
of  investigating  the  truth  ;  and  profess  our  readiness  to 
adopt  his  prayer  book,  so  soon  as  he  shall  make  it 
clear,  that  we  ought  so  to  do.  Custom  may  have  ren- 
dered a  form  important  to  him  ;  to  us  it  would  prove  an 
incumbrance.  The  Searcher  of  hearts  needs  not  our 
words  to  know  our  desires ;  our  prayers  may  ascend 


300  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

in  the  unformed  language  of  breathings  of  submission 
and  of  gratitude;  yet  words,  without  utterance,  may- 
be advantageously  conceived  for  ourselves,  or  used 
for  others ;  but  then  they  must  be  spoken  or  written. 
In  like  manner,  we  adopt  the  prayers  of  others  by  as- 
senting and  joining  mentally  ;  or  by  aspirations  with- 
out uttering  a  single  word  ;.  or  by  following  in  words, 
or  by  adding  our  amen.  We  may  offer  written 
prayers  in  the  same  manner ;  but  when  long  familiar, 
they  neither  awaken  nor  engage  the  attention  in  such 
manner  as  those  which  are  suggested  by  the  imme- 
diate reflection  of  our  minds  on  the  things  we  express, 
or  are  uttered  in  the  striking  language  of  another's 
thoughts.  In  the  view  of  a  holy  God,  neither  style 
nor  sentiment,  but  the  temper  of  the  mind ;  not  the 
eloquent  address,  but  the  humbling  sense  of  his  ma- 
jesty and  our  nothingness,  of  his  mercy  and  our 
wants ;  not  the  profession  of  a  dependence  on  the 
merits  of  Christ,  but  the  affiance  of  the  soul  upon  the 
only  mediation,  either  expressed  with  the  utmost  sim- 
plicity, or  breathed  from  a  devout  heart,  constitutes 
prayer.  Imperfections,  worse  than  of  diction,  exist 
in  all  our  services.  Defect  of  erudition  is  a  matter  of 
minor  importance.  The  prayers  of  Indian  Sarah,  in 
hunger  and  rags,  are  as  acceptable  as  those  read  from 
the  splendid  folio  of  a  cathedral,  by  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  in  lawn  sleeves.  When  the  fire  of  love, 
glowing  in  the  language  of  artless  simplicity,  engages 
and  carries  the  hearts  of  the  people ;  and  every  soul, 
rapt  in  the  exercise,  rises  to  the  very  foot  of  the 
throne  ;  heaven  and  earth  are  brought  together ;  even 
spectators  are  awed  into  silence  and  consternation. 
When  do  such  effects  follow  the  reading  of  a  litur- 
gy? After  long  observation,  an  obscure  expression 
has  rarely  occurred  in  our  public  prayers  ;  they  have 
been  obviously  conformed  to  the  truth,  and  often  to 
the  language  of  Scripture ;  the  style,  the  manner,  the 
sentiment  were  all  adapted  to  the  worshippers,  whilst 
they  who  uttered  them,  evidently  realized  themselves 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  301 

in  their  approaches  to  God,  as  joining  with  all  Chris- 
tians of  every  denomination,  the  general  assembly  of 
saints,  whose  names  are  written  in  heaven.  To  pray 
is  the  duty,  and  not  to  conflict  about  the  mode.  If 
each  is  accountable  for  himself,  each  should  be  at 
liberty  to  choose  without  censure  ;  also,  charity  de- 
mands, that  every  one  should  be  left  to  the  full  per- 
suasion of  his  own  mind. 


Number  III. 


That  the  lawfulness  of  composing  and  using  a 
form  may  be  justified  by  circumstances,  is  no  more 
doubted  by  us,  than  the  lawfulness  of  teaching  the  ig- 
norant how  to  pray.  Had  this  been  the  question,  the 
proofs  and  arguments  of  the  writer  in  the  Church 
Register,  would  have  been  relevant.  But  his  pro- 
fessed object  is,  to  show  that  the  adoption  of  a  liturgy, 
and  the  reading  of  prayers  in  public,  are  duties;  and 
finding  no  command  either  in  the  Old  or  New  Testa- 
ment of  any  such  things,  he  attempts  to  establish  them 
by  the  occasional  joint  prayers  of  the  ancient  Israel- 
ites,  the  sacerdotal  benediction,  and  the  Lord's  prayer ; 
all  of  which  being  far  less  than  a  liturgy,  in  the  pre- 
sent use  of  the  term,  fix  the  blame  of  neglecting  such 
imaginary  duties  as  much  on  them  as  on  us.  To 
prevent  his  asserting,  that  he  has  "  proved"  that  the 
Jews  "  used  a  set  form,"  we  have  neither  power  nor 
inclination.  But  if  he  can  show,  that  the  ancient 
Jews  had,  beside  psalmody,  a  written  form  of  prayer, 
more  than  the  benediction,  then  has  he  countervailed 
the  evidence,  that  every  man  offered  his  own  prayer, 
except  in  joint  addresses  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
and  has  found  what  a  learned  bigotted  dignitary  of  his 
2B 


302  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

own  church  must  have  escaped,  who  tells  us  in  a  very 
useful  work,  that,  "  neither  of  these,"  the  stationary 
men  of  the  temple,  and  the  worshipping  people  of  Is- 
rael, "  had  any  public  forms  to  pray  by,  nor  any  pub- 
lic ministers  to  officiate  to  them  therein,  but  all  prayed 
in  private  by  themselves,  and  all  according  to  their 
own  private  conceptions — and  so  continued  to  do,  all 
the  while  the  public  sacrifices  were  offering  up  both 
morning  and  evening."  He  says  the  truth,  and  that 
they  had  no  liturgy  may  be  rested  in  with  as  much 
confidence,  as  any  negative  not  mathematical.  But 
we  hold  him  not  to  the  concessions  of  his  party,  for 
we  admit  no  opinions  where  evidence  only  is  re- 
quired. 

We  are  surprised,  that  we  should  be  put  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  asserting,  that  because  the  ancient  Jews  did, 
on  some  extraordinary  occasions,  join  in  prayer  to 
God,  it  by  no  means  follows,  that  in  their  temple-ser- 
vice they  continually  joined  in  public  prayers.  This 
defect  wholly  destroys  the  writer's  superstructure  of  a 
presumption,  that  Christ  and  his  disciples  used  a  set 
form  of  prayer.  That  the  Saviour  did  authorise  joint 
prayer,  and  that  it  is  our  duty,  under  the  gospel  dis- 
pensation, no  one  denies:  but  so  far  is  this  fact  from 
supporting  his  argument  for  a  liturgy,  that  the  circum- 
stance of  his  expressly  enjoining  this  duty  strengthens 
the  position,  that  even  joint  prayer  had  not  been  either 
his,  or  their  previous  custom.  The  proofs  brought 
from  the  second  and  third  centuries,  that  Christ  had 
"  taught  his  disciples  how  to  pray,"  by  no  means  es- 
tablish, either  that  the  apostles,  or  that  the  Christian 
churches  in  the  days  of  the  apostles,  used  it  as  a  public 
form.  That  it  was  in  the  second  century  rehearsed 
in  public,  which  we  now  do,  is  no  more  a  proof,  that 
the  churches  then  had,  and  read  a  liturgy  of  written 
forms,  than  the  same  fact  proves,  the  Presbyterian 
churches  in  our  day  have  written  prayers,  which  they 
read  in  their  public  service. 

This  writer  cannot  show  us,  that  any  apostle,  or 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  303 

any  church  in  the  first  century,  ever  used  the  Lord's 
prayer  as  a  form,  so  much  as  once.  A  mere  possi- 
bility is  no  proof;  and  were  this  fact  granted  him,  it 
could  not  sustain  his  argument;  for,  that  it  was  law- 
ful, is  no  evidence  that  it  was  necessary.  We  do  not 
deny,  that  the  giving  of  the  prayer  was  a  permission 
to  use  it  as  a  form,  though  given  merely  as  a  pattern  ; 
but  we  think  it  was  not  commanded,  because  the  Sa- 
viour's words  so  understood  exclude  every  other 
prayer. 

If  it  were  allowable  for  us  to  put  the  issue  of  the 
public  cause,  upon  the  question,  whether  any  one  of 
the  ten  early  writers,  mentioned  in  his  fourth  number, 
has  asserted  that  the  church  had  a  liturgy  or  form  of 
public  prayer,  more  than  we  have  stated  in  our  last 
number,  we  should  not  fear  to  do  it ;  notwithstanding 
the  Christian  church,  from  obvious  causes,  outstripped 
the  synagogue  in  its  early  imitation  of  the  temple-ser- 
vice. If  all  he  can  prove,  extends  only  to  the  Lord's 
prayer,  and  the  words  of  Christ  in  appointing  the  two 
ordinances,  then  let  every  thing  be  cast  out  of  the 
prayer-book,  except  these,  and  the  dispute  is  terminat- 
ed. But  the  cause  of  truth  demands,  that  neither 
hearsay  evidence,  nor  the  mere  opinions  of  any  age, 
or  uninspired  writer,  should  be  received;  and  the  an- 
cient fathers  are  credible  witnesses  only  of  the  facts 
within  their  own  knowledge  respectively. 

In  the  prayer  of  the  disciples,  (Acts  iv.  24 — 31,) 
"  they  all  lift  up  their  voices  with  one  accord ;  consequent- 
ly," he  observes,  "  they  all  prayed  the  same  thing, 
which  they  could  not  have  done,  had  it  not  been  pre- 
viously set  in  order  and  drawn  up."  "  Could  not"  one 
have  spoken  it,  and  "  all"  the  rest  repeated  after  him? 
"  Could  not"  one  have  thus  prayed,  and  "  all"  the  rest 
have  "  lifted  up  their  voice,"  amen,  amen,  "with  one 
accord  ?"  When,  in  verse  31, "  they  were  all  filled  with 
the  Holy  Ghost,  and  they  spake  the  word  with  bold- 
ness," it  is  equally  just  to  say,  "  they  all"  spoke  "  the 
same  thing,  which  they  could  not  have  done,  had  it 


304  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS, 

not  been  previously  set  in  order  and  drawn  up."  Here 
the  argument  for  reading  prayers  and  sermons,  stands 
supported  by  the  same  circumstances  and  words,  and 
no  doubt  they  may  be  affirmed  of  the  apostles  with 
equal  truth.  Let  this  mode  of  expression  be  tried  in 
other  passages.  "In  Acts  1,  10,  11,"  "two  men  in 
white  apparel  stood — and  said,  the  men,"  &c.  Did 
the  two  angels  use  a  precomposed  set  form  of  address? 
Peter's  speech,  ch.  iii.  12 — 26,  is,  in  eh.  iv.  1,  referred 
to  John  as  well  as  himself,  in  similar  language,  "  and 
as  they  spake  to  the  people."  In  each  instance  the 
act  of  the  one  having  the  concurrence  of  the  other, 
was,  with  the  utmost  propriety,  referred  to  both.  Did 
each  elder,  (ch.  i^.  6,  7,)  ask  the  same  question  of 
Peter  and  John?  Afterwards  (ch.  v.  29)  the  answer  of 
Peter  is  considered  as  the  answer  of  the  other  apos- 
tles. "  Then  Peter  and  the  other  apostles,  answered," 
&c.  But  this  prayer  (ch.  iv.  24)  "  was  previously  set 
in  order  and  drawn  up !"  There  was  no  time  for  it ; 
Peter  and  John  "  being  let  go,  they  went  to  their  own 
company,  and  reported  all  that  the  chief  priests  and 
elders  had  said  unto  them  ;  and  when  they  heard  that, 
they  lift  up  their  voices  with  one  accord,  and  said," 
&c.  It  was  the  sudden  effusion  of  their  hearts ;  if 
they  had  appointed  any  of  their  number  to  retire  and 
draw  up  a  form  of  prayer, worthy  of  the  occasion, 
lestlhe  impressive  circumstances  should  induce  them 
to  betray  more  zeal  than  knowledge ;  instead  of  the 
feeling  here  described,  the  record  would  have  been  a 
lifeless  form,  and  the  worship  a  species  of  calculation 
bordering  on  hypocrisy.  But  "  they  were  all  filled 
with  the  Holy  Ghost ;"  what  need  could  there  be,  in 
their  state,  to  "  set  in  order  and  draw  up"  a  prayer? 
After  all,  if  we  could  believe  this  pious  writer's  con- 
struction of  the  passage,  this  special  case  would  be  no 
proof,  either  of  the  existence  of  a  public  liturgy  at  the 
period,  or  that  a  form  of  prayer  was  used  in  the  ordi- 
nary worship  of  the  apostles. 

Because  prayer  was  made  without  ceasing  of  the 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  305 

church  unto  God  for  "  Peter,"  who  was  imprisoned, 
the  writer  supposes,  that  it  was,  in-  all  probability,  in 
strict  unison  with  the  custom  of  set  forms.  But  until 
such  custom  has  been  proved,  no  such  probability  exists. 
When  the  Presbyterian  churches  agree  to  pray  for 
some  object,  no  one  infers,  that  they  "  agreed  upon 
before  hand,  a  set  form  ;  nor  would  the  doing  this,  on 
a  special  occasion,  be  a  ground  even  of  probability  that 
they  used  a  public  liturgy.  Upon  such  probabilities, 
nevertheless,  this  writer  has  attempted  to  erect  a  de- 
monstration of  an  ancient  Jewish  liturgy,  founding  it 
merely  upon  these  instances,  in  which  the  people,  upon 
extraordinary  occasions,  offered  up  a  joint  prayer, 
which  he  presumes  was  preconceived  and  written, 
although,  at  all  other  times,  they  prayed  like  the 
Pharisee  and  the  Publican,  each  by  himself.  Neither 
is  that  which  is  occasional  common,  nor  is  joint 
prayer  necessarily  preconceived,  written  and  read. 

The  desire  of  establishing  an  ancient  Jewish  liturgy, 
led  Dr.  Lightfoot  to  suppose  the  eighteen  benedictions 
to  be  that  liturgy ;  although  destitute  of  proof  suf- 
ficiently ancient,  and  carrying  on  their  face,  that  they 
were  written  since  the  dispersion,  and  when  there 
was  neither  temple  nor  sacrifice. 

Justice  is  desirable  in  all  things ;  to  deduce  sweep- 
ing conclusions  from  imbecile  and  unsupported  pre^- 
mises,  is  unjust.  This  writer  is  safe  in  point  of  cha- 
racter, because  his  name  is  concealed :  and  the  inter- 
rogative mode  of  his  inference  is  probably  a  designed 
salvo  for  his  conscience,  when  he  says :  "  Coupling 
the  evidence  of  the  general  use  of  the  Lord's  prayer 
by  the  apostles,  with  the  strong  testimony  of  the  in- 
stances recorded  in  the  Acts,  can  any  one  doubt  of  the 
authority  of  set  forms  1  rather,  can  any  one  doubt  of 
the  necessity  of  them  V  There  has  been  no  evidence 
of  the  general  "  use  of  the  Lord's  prayer  by  the  apos- 
tles," no,  not  a  solitary  example  of  any  such  thing,  nor 
can  this  writer  produce  one.  The  "  testimony  of  the 
instances  recorded  in  the  Acts,"  we  have  seen  proves 
2b2 


306  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

nothing  more,  than  that  the  disciples  joined  in  prayer, 
on  particular  occasions :  but  of  their  using  a  form  in 
those  instances,  not  a  word  is  said,  and  even  the  pro- 
bability in  each  case  is  excluded  by  the  circumstances. 
Consequently,  the  "  coupling"  them  together  must  be 
precisely  the  addition  of  two  noughts.  But  the  writer's 
first  inference  is  the  "  authority  of  set  forms."  If  he 
means  that  they  may  be  lawfully  used, to  this  no  one  ob- 
jects ;  let  every  one  use  them  who  chooses ;  and  we 
hope  many  do  with  real  devotion.  But  if  he  intends  by 
the  phrase,  that  it  was  either  the  precept  or  practice  of 
Christ  or  his  apostles,  to  pray  by  set  forms,  what  he 
says  is  perfectly  gratuitous.  His  second  conclusion 
from  his  unsupported  premises,  is  the  "  necessity"  of  set 
forms.  There  not  having  been  a  single  instance 
shown,  either  of  the  use  of  the  Lord's  prayer,  or  of 
any  other  set  form  by  the  disciples,  the  inference  ought 
to  have  been,  that  they  are  not  necessary.  Prayer  is 
the  offering  up  of  the  desires  of  the  heart,  and  why 
may  not  every  one,  who  knows  how  to  express  his 
thoughts  on  other  subjects,  speak  his  wants  to  God? 
Nevertheless,  he  who  has  never  cherished  any  desires, 
except  those  which  were  previously  written  for  his 
use,  and  has  been  taught  by  this  writer,  that  an  at- 
tempt to  pray  without  a  set  form  would  be  presump- 
tion, and  a  want  of  humility,  may  feel  a  necessity  of 
such  aid;  and  let  him  have  it  free  of  censure.  But 
we  are  said  to  "  neglect"  the  use  of  forms,  "  from  ig- 
norance  of  the  Scriptural  authority  of  such  custom." 
Ignorant  as  we  are,  we  shall  not  be  also  ungrateful  to 
this  writer,  if  he  will  show  us,  where  the  Scriptures 
exhibit  such  a  custom;  and  promise  to  give  no  more 
"  vent  to  our  own  words"  in  public  prayer,  when  he 
shall  evince  set  forms  to  have  been  "  the  ordinances 
of  Christ,  and  the  practice  of  his  apostles." 

The  zeal  of  this  unknown  writer  was  the  most  pro- 
bable cause  of  his  astonishment,  when  he  asked : 
"  What  a  stretch  of  pride  it  is  in  man  possessing  only,  at 
the  utmost,  the  ordinary  operations  of  the  Spirit,  to 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  307 

suppose,  that  he  can  safely  practise  that,  which  the 
fully  inspired  of  God  in  the  earliest  and  freest  impulse 
of  inspiration,  under  the  gospel  covenant,  did  not 
practise  !"  The  "  ordinary  operations"  are  the  "  more 
excellent  way,"  and  preferable  to  gifts.  There  is 
some  singularity,  also,  both  in  denominating  them  in- 
spiration, and  in  supposing  them  compatible  with  a 
"stretch  of  pride."  But  waiving  these  things,  we  ap- 
peal to  the  writer's  own  conscience,  and  ask,  how  he 
could  assert,  that  the  apostles  "  did  not  practise"  ex- 
temporary prayer,  when  he  has  in  vain  attempted  to 
show  a  single  proof  that  they  ever  used  a  form  ?  The 
imputation  of  a  "  stretch  of  pride"  cast  upon  every  one 
who  prays  in  public,  without  a  precomposed  form, 
must  extend  with  equal  justice  to  every  one,  who 
preaches  as  did  the  apostles,  without  writing;  and 
also  to  every  man,  who  ventures  to  walk  alone  when 
he  might  use  crutches. 

The  charges  of  pride  and  ignorance,  we  are,  because 
fallen  men,  less  able  to  parry,  than  the  arguments  for 
a  liturgy;  and  to  recriminate  by  showing,  that  the  use 
of  forms  in  praying  and  preaching  is  some  evidence 
of  both  the  flaws,  might  'wound  the  feelings  of  the 
writer,  if  he  should  be,  as  we  suppose  he  is,  both  a 
Christian  and  a  gentleman.  But  why  should  it  be  "  a 
stretch  of  pride — to  suppose  that  we  would  safely 
practise"  extemporary  prayer,  if  we  have  spent  as 
much  time,  labor,  and  expense  in  obtaining  knowledge 
and  language,  as  we  ought  to  have  done  1  And  why 
should  we  aim  at  a  character  for  correctness,  which 
is  impossible  to  human  nature  ?  We  apprehend  no 
danger;  and  think  we  have  followed  as  closely  the 
examples  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  as  they  who  read 
or  rehearse  every  word.  If  we  should  sit  down 
to  compose  a  prayer,  and  think  God  not  to  see  what 
we  are  doing,  till  we  have  prepared  it,  and  appear  in 
the  public  desk  to  read  it,  we  disparage  his  perfections; 
but  if  he  sees  us,  in  all  our  deliberations  upon  what  wre 
will  say,  and  what  withhold,  we  have  gained  nothing 


308  •LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

in  point  of  safety.  If  by  the  terms,  "  safely  practise" 
the  writer  had  respect  to  the  approbation  of  men, 
which  we  can  scarcely  imagine,  such  argument  for 
forms  is  contemptibly  puerile,  and  the  apprehensions 
of  danger  idolatrous. 


Number  IV. 


To  serve  the  writer  under  this  title  in  the  Church 
Register,  we  will  concede  any  thing  that  is  true  ;  and 
will  cheerfully  admit,  that  if  any  part  of  the  worship 
under  the  Mosaic  dispensation  was  not  typical,  and 
has  not  been  removed  by  the  gospel,  it  still  continues : 
and  that  thus,  not  only  the  right  of  children  to  be  re- 
ceived by  circumcision  into  the  church,  whose  parents 
were  members,  not  being  taken  away,  and  baptism 
now  evidently  occupying  the  place  of  circumcision, 
infant  baptism  is  plainly  justified ;  but  also  the  apos- 
tles were  left  both  for  the  mode  and  subjects  of  bap- 
tism, almost  entirely  to  their  previous  Jewish  customs. 
At  his  reasoning  for  the  baptism  of  females,  because 
salvation  is  offered  to  all,  of  which  he  thinks  they  only 
are  capable,  who  have  been  admitted  by  baptism  into 
"  the  state  of  covenanted  grace,"  we  hesitate ;  because 
baptism,  although  a  sign  only  of  passing  from  a  sinful 
to  a  holy  state,  and  not  the  change  itself,  either  of  na- 
ture or  of  state,  was  anciently  confounded  with  and 
called  regeneration ;  yet  as  it  cannot  produce  on  the 
mind  a  mechanical  effect,  irrespectively  of  its  own 
choice ;  so  when  Christ  distinguished  between  being 
born  of  the  water  and  of  the  spirit,  his  words  certainly 
did  neither  imply,  that  the  one  birth  was  the  same  as 
the  other,  nor  that  the  one  was  the  cause  of  the  other. 
This  doctrine,  like  his  liturgy,  with  its  confirmation, 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


309 


canonical  ordination,  and  many  other  things,  should 
have  been,  at  the  Reformation,  abandoned  as  human 
inventions. 

Prayer  is  the  common  duty  of  Jew  and  Gentile,  and 
in  its  nature  personal,  whether  public  or  private,  being 
the  language  of  the  heart,  and  the  mode  consequently 
unimportant.  Among  the  distinguished  people,  the 
emblem  of  Divine  Majesty  rested  on  the  mercy-seat ; 
there  he.  put  his  name  ;  from  thence  blessed  the  wor- 
shippers. The  priests,  as  mediators,  offered  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  sacrifices,  and  burned  the  incense  be- 
tween the  mercy-seat  and  the  people,  "  who  were  pray- 
ing without."  (Luke  i.  9,  10.)  The  incense  of"  the 
priests  and  the  prayers  of  the  saints,  are  often  asso- 
ciated in  the  Scriptures.  (Exod.  xxx.  £7;  Ps.  cxli.  2, 
xxxviii.  2 ;  Rev.  v.  8,  viii.  3,  4.)  The  sanctuary,  the 
priests,  and  the  incense  were  types,  (Heb.  ix.  24,)  but 
now  Christians  may  draw  near  with  boldness  to  the 
throne  of  grace.  (Heb.  iv.  14,  16,  x.  21,  22.)  The 
Sovereign  of  the  Universe  is  the  object  of  prayer.  He 
may  have  mercy  upon  whom  He  will ;  but  He  will 
maintain  the  honor  of  his  rectoral  government,  and 
extend  his  mercy  only  through  Christ.  The  work  of 
the  priests  was  not  to  speak  the  petition  of  the  people, 
but  to  act  as  typical  mediators  ;  and  whilst  they  were 
offering  sacrifices,  and  burning  the  incense  of  the 
morning  and  evening,  the  people  at  the  temple,  in  the 
synagogues,  in  the  streets  and  market  places,  in  their 
closets  or  in  foreign  lands,  were  praying  with  their 
faces  towards  the  mercy-seat.  Nevertheless,  if  it  can  be 
shown  that  there  was  a  liturgy  under  the  former  dis- 
pensation, in  public  use  in  the  temple,  we  are  as  ready 
to  receive  and  use  it,  with  suitable  modifications,  as 
we  are  to  sing  the  Psalms  of  David.  But  if  the  truth 
really  is,  that  each  appeared  and  prayed  in  his  own 
words,  and  considered  that  the  public  sacrifices  might 
afford  him  the  advantage  of  procuring  acceptance  for 
his  requests,  he  asked  for  himself,  not  in  preconceived 
written  forms,  but  whatsoever  he  thought  he  most 


310  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

needed.  In  like  manner,  when  a  few  Christians  are 
assembled,  the  presence  of  God  is  promised  to  their 
worship  ;  and  whether  one  utters  a  prayer,  or  many 
pray  in  succession,  the  prayer  is  still  necessarily  seve- 
ral, for  each  adopts  what  suits  his  views,  and  adds 
what  he  chooses  in  mental  aspirations,  unembarrassed 
by  set  words ;  and  that  God,  who  sees  the  heart,  will 
answer  the  prayer  of  faith.  If  it  be  a  printed  form,  it 
is  equally  prayer,  by  those  who  offer  it  up,  making  it 
their  own,  but  not  otherwise. 

An  argument  predicated  upon  the  want  of  a  prohibi- 
tion of  set  forms,  is  but  a  waste  of  words,  unless  it  be 
first  shown,  that  such  forms  had  previously  existed. 
To  the  challenge  given  by  the  writer  in  the  Church 
Register,  "  to  adduce  one  instance  that  contains  any 
allusion  to  such  prohibition,"  we  answer,  we  will  take 
up  the  gauntlet  the  moment  he  shows  "  the  custom  of 
using  set  forms  in  the  public  worship  of  the  Jews," 
prior  to  the  Christian  era ;  and  we  shall  be  satisfied, 
if  he  can  show  precept,  example,  or  even  an  allusion 
to  a  written  liturgy  in  the  Scriptures:  and  common 
sense  dictates,  that  no  prohibition  can  be  reasonably 
expected,  of  that  which  had  no  previous  existence. 
The  amount  of  his  argument  seems  to  be,  that  every 
thing  not  prohibited  is  lawful;  which  will  justify  the 
teaching  for  doctrines  the  commandments  of  men. 
We  shall  never  object  to  their  using  set  forms  of 
prayer,  who  prefer  to  do  so :  but  we  censure  the  de- 
nominating any  thing  the  command  of  God,  which  is 
of  merely  human  appointment,  and  pronounce  it  to  be 
will-worship.  It  is  probable,  that  neither  Aaron,  nor 
Jeroboam,  designed  to  change  the  object  of  worship ; 
they  introduced  only  other  signs  of  the  divine  pre- 
sence. But  their  innovations  invaded  the  divine  pre- 
rogative, and  were  treason.  Liturgies  having  neither 
precept,  nor  example  under  either  dispensation,  fall 
under  the  same  censure ;  and  although  they  may  be 
used  innocently  by  those  who  are  accustomed  thus  to 
worship,  for  prayer  is  the  desire  of  the  heart ;  yet 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  311 

when  introduced  either  by  civil  or  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority, as  the  command  of  God,  who  has  commanded 
no  such  thing,  it  is  an  error  like  his,  who  said,  "  these 
be  thy  gods,  {meaning  the  singular,)  Oh  Israel,  which 
brought  thee  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt."  We  are 
forced  to  these  representations,  that  this  pious  writer 
may  see,  that  it  is  neither  insincerity  nor  pride  which 
prevents  our  confessing  such  practice  to  be  "  Scriptu- 
ral and  apostolic,"  but  a  perfect  conviction  that  it  is 
neither ;  and  a  persuasion  that  it  ought  not  to  have 
been  introduced.  If  prayer,  even  when  joint,  be  per- 
sonal and  several,  and  strictly  the  application  of  a 
child  to  a  father  in  every  instance,  the  unrenewed 
never  pray;  for  every  one  who  asketh  receiveth,  and 
they  who  receive  not,  have  not  asked.  When  prayer, 
therefore,  is  defined  the  offering  up  the  desires  of  the 
heart,  it  must  be  understood  only  of  holy  desires ; 
otherwise  it  is  an  abomination,  and  these  exist  only 
in  the  justified.  More  may  agree  in  their  petitions, 
but  there  is  not  so  much  one  prayer  as  a  concert  of 
prayers,  which  are  as  numerous  as  the  believing  wor- 
shippers. 

The  fifth  number  presents  also  an  argument,  novel 
to  us,  and  ingenious — "  among  the  diversities  of  gifts 
— there  is  no  mention  of  the  gift  of  praying ;"  whence 
he  infers  that  the  necessity  of  it  was  prevented  by  the 
custom,  "  of  offering  up  congregationally  their  prayers 
in  a  pre-composed-  and  set  form."  This  is  a  fine  ex- 
ample of  the  non  causa  pro  causa,  the  assignatio?i  of  a 
wrong  cause.  Gifts  were  distinguished  from  grac 
those  might  exist  where  the  party  was  still  an  enemy, 
grace  only  where  the  disposition  was  changed.  So 
far  as  prayer  consisted  of  words  or  sentiments,  it 
might  be  a  gift;  but  more  strictly,  prayer  is  the  offer- 
ing up  of  the  desires  of  the  heart,  under  which  aspect, 
it  is  moral,  not  physical,  of  grace  not  by  gift,  and  ordi- 
nary not  extraordinary.  The  nature  of  prayer,  there- 
fore, and  not  the  use  of  forms,  prevented  the  enumera- 
tion of  prayer  among  the  gifts,  which  were  bestowed 


312 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


under  the  administration  of  the  Spirit,  in  planting  the 
churches.  But  this  advocate  of  the  divine  authority 
of  liturgies,  thinks  his  argument  derives  "weight  from 
the  apostle's  injunction — not  to  pray  in  an  unknown 
tongue,  because  the  people  could  not  say  amen,  to  such 
prayers:"  and  he  infers,  "neither  can  they  say  amen 
to  prayers  uttered  by  the  ministers  extemporaneously; 
because  they  are  to  know  what  they  are  praying  for, 
and  how  they  are  praying,  which  men  in  general  can- 
not do,  when  any  person,  though  inspired,  is  praying 
for  them  in  words  and  sentiments  which  are  his  own, 
and  unknown  to  others  before  they  are  uttered."  If 
inspired,  it  is  scarcely  discernible  how  the  words  and 
sentiments  should  be  his  own.  Also,  in  public,  which 
is  joint  prayer,  the  speaker  does  not  usually  "  pray 
for  them"  who  hear,  but  uses  the  first  person  plural. 
But  that  the  prohibition  to  pray  in  an  unknown  tongue 
should  aid  the  cause  of  liturgies,  it  must  be  presumed 
that  the  church  of  Corinth  had  liturgies  in  different 
tongues,  and  that  the  apostle  meant  to  restrict  them  to 
the  use  of  those  only  which  the  people  could  under- 
stand. What  would  the  Catholics  say  to  this  1  But  the 
design  of  the  apostle  was  to  correct,  and  prevent  the 
abuse  of  gifts;  and  particularly  the  vanity  of  praying 
in  the  words  of  an  unknown  language.  The  gift  of 
tongues  was  important,  that  strangers  might  hear  the 
gospel;  but  public  prayers  should  be  spoken  in  the 
common  language,  that  every  one  might  make  them 
their  own  by  their  amen,  and  do  the  very  thing  of 
which  the  wTriter  has  said,  "  neither  can  they  say 
amen  to  prayers  uttered  extemporaneously." 

Another  argument  adduced  is,  that  "  as  all  things 
are  to  be  done  decently  and  in  order,  so  the  best  way  of 
insuring  that  decency  and  order,  was,  that  all  should 
pray  with  one  mind  and  one  mouth,  which  could  only 
be  done  congregationally  by  the  adoption  of  prayers 
one  and  the  same,  and  known  and  understood  by  all." 
This  precept  of  decency  and  order  was  used  by  Bel- 
larmine  to  establish  the  whole  service  and  ceremonies 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  313 

of  the  church  of  Rome;  and  is  as  valid  for  the  whole 
as  it  is  for  a  part ;  and  this  writer  is  as  much  bound 
by  it  to  receive  the  popish  ritual,  as  we  are  to  adopt 
his.  Our  ideas  of  decency  and  order  are  probably 
diverse.  He  thinks  decency  and  order  impossible  in  a 
congregation  where  all  rise  up  to  pray,  and  hear  in 
profound  silence  the  words  of  him  who  leads,  and  lift 
up  in  aspirations  his  petitions,  adding  what  breathings 
they  choose,  in  the  name  of  Christ,  to  the  throne  of 
God,  whom  they  thus  approach  with  the  confidence  of 
children  to  a  father.  To  us,  probably  through  desue- 
tude, when  we  hear  the  reader's  words  echoed  back 
from  every  corner  of  the  church,  in  every  possible 
tone,  loud  and  soft,  harsh  and  smooth,  hurried  and 
slow ;  and  our  ears  are  not  more  offended  with  dis- 
cords, than  our  eyes  by  a  confusion  of  countenances, 
some  gay  and  absent,  others  hanging  upon  the  lips  of 
the  speaker,  and  others  fixed  upon  their  books,  which 
of  the  two  modes  of  worship  is  most  favorable  to  de- 
cency and  order,  appears  not  doubtful.  Nor  is  there 
with  us  any  uncertainty,  either  about  the  time  or 
manner  of  the  introduction  of  liturgies,  as  we  hinted 
in  our  second  number.  We  not  only  have  all  the 
certainty  that  a  negative  admits,  that  none  of  these 
written  forms  existed  in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity ; 
but  also  evidence,  that  they  came  in  at  a  period  when 
the  church  had  become  greatly  corrupted.  The  simi- 
larity which  the  liturgy  advocated  by  this  writer,  bears 
unto  the  Latin  Catholic  liturgy,  shows  its  origin ;  and 
the  clerical  sentiment  of  the  day  was  no  doubt  ex- 
pressed by  a  learned  doctor  of  the  establishment, 
when  he  said,  "  As  to  our  churches  prescribing  a  litur- 
gy of  set  forms  of  prayer  and  administration  of  sacra- 
ments, and  other  public  offices,  it  is  easy  to  show,  that 
symbolizing  with  the  church  of  Rome  is  so  far  from 
being  culpable,  and  much  more  from  being  a  just 
ground  of  separation  from  our  church,  that  it  is  highly 
commendable."  Yet  we  do  not  think,  and  therefore 
cannot  say  of  ours,  that  it  is  the  only  mode  in  which 
2C 


314  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

worship  can  be  rightly  offered ;  and  were  surprised, 
when  we  read  in  the  Church  Register,  that  to  "  pray 
with  one  mind  and  one  mouth"  can  "  only  he  done 
congregationally  by  the  adoption  of  prayers  one  and 
the  same,  and  known  and  understood  by  all."  We 
had  thought  any  mode  sufficient  in  which  the  desire 
of  the  heart  can  be  offered  ;  but  if  one  mouth  be  essen- 
tial, how  can  many  be  one  ? 

An  argument  is  drawn  also  from  the  meaning  of  the 
original  word  rendered  "  order,"  in  the  passage  of 
Scripture  last  cited ;  which,  he  thinks,  denotes  a  pre- 
vious arrangement  and  setting  in  order ;  hence,  he 
asks,  if  Paul  may  not  have  referred  to  an  "  order 
which  had  been  prescribed  ?"  His  interrogations  imply 
a  doubtfulness,  which  it  is  to  his  credit  not  to  conceal. 
His  perplexities  demand  commiseration.  But  he  as- 
cends to  no  higher  authority  than  the  opinions  of  a 
modern  German  lexicographer,  which  merits  no  an- 
swer. A  writer  of  his  own  church,  understanding  this 
same  word  to  signify  a  rule  or  canon,  has  used  it  as  an 
argument  against  allowing  toleration  to  our  fathers  ; 
a  favor  we  do  not  ask;  and  has  observed  in  the  true 
spirit  of  these  times  :  "  We  must  not  break  God's  com- 
mands in  charity  to  them,  and  therefore  we  must  not 
perform  public  services  indecently  and  disorderly,  for  the 
sake  of  tender  consciences."  Thank  heaven,  those 
days  are  past. 

That  "  the  church  of  England,"  meaning,  we  sup- 
pose, in  America,  "  holds  fast  the  form  of  sound 
words"  in  "articles  of  belief,"  and  "modes  of  woi- 
ship,"  is  matter  of  gratulation  with  this  writer,  in 
which  we  also  partake  ;  for  we  think  her  articles  are 
sound  in  the  main,  and  of  her  modes  of  worship 
would  make  no  complaint.  That  much  piety  exists 
among  her  evangelical  members,  we  are  happy  to 
have  no  doubt ;  of  the  rest,  we  presume  not  to  judge  ; 
but  possessing  kind  feelings  to  the  denomination,  as  a 
branch  of  the  church  of  Christ,  we  wish  never  to  say, 
or  write  a  word  against  her  government  or  ritual : 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  315 

but  the  same  uncharitable  spirit,  which,  by  passing  an 
ecclesiastical  ostracism,  disgusted  and  exiled  our 
fathers,  has  followed  us  in  our  retreat  with  its  old,  ig- 
norant, and  unfounded  monopoly-  To  vindicate  the 
truth  is  a  duty  easy,  all  that  is  necessary  to  us 
being  merely  to  disclose  the  facts  of  ancient  history, 
when  the  unadulterated  cause  of  the  gospel  will  re- 
commend itself. 


Number  V. 


Whilst  the  Christian  reads  the  Psalms  of  David 
with  self-application,  pleasure  springs  from  the  reflec- 
tion, that  he  reads  the  word  of  God ;  yet  in  almost 
every  Psalm  we  pass  by  things  which  we  do  not  lift 
up  to  the  throne  of  grace.  To  these  set  forms  of  in- 
spiration none  object ;  but  their  first  design  was  praise. 
Had  the  apostles  left  us  set  forms  of  prayer,  as  they 
must  have  been  also  inspired,  they  would  have  fallen 
into  general  use.  If  the  author  of  Liturgical  Conside- 
rations, in  the  Church  Register,  could  have  shown 
"  the  use  of  set  forms,  by  the  apostles,"  "  it  matters  not 
on  how  few  occasions,"  we  should  have  gladly  re- 
ceived them ;  but  whether  a  solitary  instance  has  ap- 
peared, an  impartial  public  can  judge.  His  supposi- 
tion, that  apostolic  practice  would  continue  to  A.  D. 
120  or  130,  is  reasonable;  and  we  concede  still  more, 
that  though  he  has  not  shown,  that  the  apostles  nsed 
set  forms  of  prayer  in  public,  yet  if  the  churches  in 
any  short  period  after  their  day,  did  in  fact  use  such 
forms,  then  must  they  have  been  in  use  in  the  times  of 
inspiration;  and  we  follow  his  researches  on  this 
point  with  impartiality. 

In  Clement,  who  is  first  adjured,  we  have  the  utmost 


316  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

confidence.  But  what  in  his  letter  could  have  invited 
the  appeal,  baffles  conjecture.  The  Greek  word 
"  liturgy"  does  occur  at  each  of  the  places  cited,  yet 
this  writer's  prudence  has  rendered  it  worship  and  service. 
The  church  at  Corinth  had  existed  long  under  those, 
who  by  the  extraordinary  gifts  and  guidance  of  the 
Spirit,  planted  the  first  churches;  and  this  letter  being 
written  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  they 
could  have  had  presbyters  but  a  few  years.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  letter,  being  to  cause  them  to  receive  again 
their  presbyters,  whom  they  had  rejected,  it  is  evident 
they  had  been  averse  to  church  order.  To  this  Cle- 
ment presses  them  as  the  ordinance  of  God.  "  Where, 
and  by  whom  he  wills  things  to  be  accomplished,  he 
has  oi'dained,  in  his  sovereign  pleasure;  that  all  things 
piously  done  unto  well  pleasing,  might  be  acceptable 
unto  his  own  will."  He  then  refers  them  to  the  ser- 
vices (liturgies)  of  the  temple,  appointed  to  the  high 
priest,  and  the  rest  of  the  priesthood,  alleging  that  lay- 
men were  there  restricted  to  their  own  duties.  Im- 
mediately he  observes,  "let  each  one  of  you  brethren 
praise  God  in  his  own  sphere,  living  in  a  good  con- 
science, each  not  exceeding  the  prescribed  rule  of  his 
service,  with  reverence."  Again  he  refers  them  to 
the  worship  at  Jerusalem,  and  argues  the  greater  guilt 
of  the  Christians  at  Corinth,  from  their  greater  know- 
ledge. The  church  was  therefore  not  to  continue 
without-  presbyters,  nor  their  duties  to  be  invaded  by 
those,  who  had  not  been  appointed  to  them.  The  de- 
sign of  Clement  is  clear,  and  his  reasoning  forcible, 
but  we  discern  not  even  the  most  remote  allusion,  in 
either  passage,  to  the  use  of  set  forms  in  worship. 

"Polycarp  exhorts  the  Philippians  to  return  to  the 
word,  that  was  delivered  from  the  beginning,  watching 
unto  prayer"  This  advice  of  Paul,  Cyprian  observes, 
"shows  that  they  can  obtain  from  God,  what  they  ask, 
whom  God  sees  to  be  watching  in  prayer."  They  re- 
commend an  importunity  like  that  of  the  Canaanite, 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS-  317 

who  would  receive  no  denial,  and  are  rather  an  argu- 
ment against,  than  for  set  forms  of  prayer. 

The  expressions  "one  common  supplication,"  "one 
common  prayer,"  "your  joint  prayers"  in  the  letter 
ascribed  to  the  pious  Ignatius,  and  which  are  a  blot 
upon  his  memory,  imply  no  necessity,  that  the  pray- 
ers should  have  been  written  and  read;  for  if  one  led 
the  worship,  and  the  rest  united,  the  prayer  was  one, 
joint,  and  common.  In  this  mode  the  unlearned  could 
unite  as  well  as  those  who  could  read.  If  prayer 
books  had  been  then  the  order  of  the  day,  the  cum- 
brous machinery  could  not  have  escaped  notice. 
These  "powerful"  prayers  were  of  single  congrega- 
tions, for  though  those  spurious  letters  were  written 
long  after  the  death  of  the  martyr,  and  when  episco- 
pacy had  commenced  in  its  parochial  form;  yet  even 
then,  liturgies  in  the  sense  of  written  prayers,  were 
unknown.  Evidence  to  procure  belief,  should  flow 
from  pure  fountains,  but  the  writer  of  those  letters 
though  unworthy  of  credit,  had  not  anticipated  litur- 
gies. 

"Tertullian  does  not  notice  in  his  apology  any 
change."  Unless  liturgies  had  been  introduced  in  his 
day,  there  was  no  change,  that  could  have  accrued  on 
this  subject;  but  wTe  have  seen,  that  they  were  intro- 
duced long  afterwards.  "Besides  the  use  of  the  Lord's 
prayer,  and  the  psalms,  he  mentions  the  subject  of 
their  constant  supplications,  from  which  we  may  infer 
that  there  were  additional  forms  used  by  the  Christians, 
besides  that  perfect  one,  given  by  our  Lord  himself." 
Although  the  repeated  exhibition  of  the  Lord's  prayer 
affords  a  fair  presumption  that  there  was  no  other  pat- 
tern given  by  him,  yet  this  writer  thence  infers  the  ex- 
istence of  more.  Also,  because  Tertullian  mentions 
different  subjects  of  prayer,  he  presumes  the  prayers  must 
have  been  written  and  read;  but  as  none  such  have  been 
shown  to  have  then  existed,  and  no  public  forms  to  have 
been  then  in  use,  except  the  rehearsal  of  the  Lord's  pray- 
er, the  presumption  isprecisely  the  reverse,and  the  infer- 
2c2 


318  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

ence  against  him.  Christians  were  persecuted,  because 
they  would  not  offer  to  the  gods  sacrifices  for  the  Em- 
peror; Tertullian  alleged  that  they  could  not  apply  to 
gods  unable  to  afford  help,  but  that  they  prayed  to  the 
Almighty  for  the  Emperor ;  and  to  establish  the  truth 
of  what  he  said,  he  referred  his  enemies  1o  the  Scrip- 
tures which  required  Christians  to  pray  for  their  ene- 
mies, their  persecutors,  and  for  Emperors,  and  for  all 
who  were  in  authority.  Apol.  c.  31.  If  Christians  had 
then  used  written  forms  of  prayer,  they  must  have 
been  produced  as  the  best  evidence,  but  his  reference 
to  the  Scriptures,  to  prove  the  principles  of  Christians, 
evinces  that  they  had  no  forms,  which  they  could  bring 
in  defence. 

Cyprian  is  next  adduced ;  "whose  evidence  is  still 
more  explicit,  when  he  warns  Christians,  not  to  babble 
their  prayers,  in  unpremeditated,  or  disorderly  words; 
neither  to  use  a  tumultuous  or  confounding  loquacity, 
and  earnestly  exhorts  his  flock,  to  take  care  their  hearts 
and  voices  go  together  in  prayer."  We  suppose  the 
passage,  here  spoken  of,  to  be,  "non  ventilare  preces 
nostras  inconditis  vocibus,  nee  petitionem  commendan- 
dam  modeste  Deo,  tumultuosa  loquacitate  jactare : 
quia  Deus  non  vocis,  sed  cordis  auditor  est."  If  the 
people,  who  were  here  reproved  used  only  a  written  li- 
turgy, it  is  impossible,  that  they  should  have  been  guilty 
of  babbling,  disorderly  words,  and  tumultuous  loqua- 
city: but  these  improprieties  might  readily  have  oc- 
curred in  the  secluded  assemblies  of  zealous,  perse- 
cuted Christians,  where  many  successively  led  in 
prayer ;  and  especially,  if  they  spoke  aloud  their  amen, 
accompanied  with  pious  effusions.  Cyprian  confirms 
this  view  by  proposing  immediately  in  the  same  para- 
graph the  example  of  Hannah ;  whom  he  affirms  to 
have  been  a  type  of  the  church,  7vho  spoke  not  with  her 
voice  but  with  her  heart, — and  obtai?ied  what  she  sought. 
She  certainly  prayed  without  a  written  form,  and  the 
church  was  advised  to  pray  as  she  did.  This  "evi- 
dence is  still  more  explicit,"  for  it  substitutes  among 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  319 

the  people  mental,  in  the  place  of  vocal  prayer.  But 
because  the  writing  is  on  the  subject  of  the  Lord's 
prayer,  which  in  the  third  century  was  publicly  recited 
by  memory,  it  may  be  thought,  that  he  reproves  the 
disorderly  rehearsal  of  this  aloud  by  the  people;  it 
must  be  remembered  however  that  the  accusation  was 
of  loquacity,  which  implies  that  they  used  their  own 
words. 

"Gregory  Thaumaturgus  A.  D.  270,  composed  or 
compiled  a  liturgy  for  the  use  of  the  churches  in  Cap- 
padocia,  which  continued  to  be  used  without  any  va- 
riation till  the  time  of Basil  about  one  hundred 

years  after."  We  are  sorry  to  see  this  hackneyed 
allegation  here  presented  with  absolute  positiveness, 
notwithstanding  the  notoriety  of  the  numerous  objec- 
tions. If  we  suppose  it  to  be  Basil's,  it  is  hearsay  evi- 
dence, and  not  nearer  to  its  time  than  a  century;  but 
it  is  contradicted  by  his  sixty-third  epistle,  in  so  many 
words,  wherein  speaking  to  them  of  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgus, he  says,  "  you  have  preserved  nothing." 
The  evidence  is  allowed  by  Erasmus,  who  translated 
the  piece,  and  by  others,  to  have  been  in  part,  or 
whole,  a  forgery  in  the  name  of  Basil;  and  this  opinion 
was  not  founded  merely  upon  diversity  of  style ;  but  a 
falsehood,  of  which  that  writer  was  incapable.  But 
the  words  "  they  have  not  added  any  practice,  word, 
or  mystical  type,  besides  what  he  had  left  them,"  do 
not  speak  that  he  had  left  them  a  liturgy.  If  the  piece  be 
genuine,  it  is  a  defence  of  Basil  for  varying  the  form  of 
the  doxology ;  and  in  the  whole  of  it  we  can  find  no- 
thing, which  concerns  forms  or  liturgies,  and  the  Greek 
terms  rendered  word,  mystical,  and  type  are  each,  in 
other  parts  of  it,  plainly  used  for  the  doxology.  It  is, 
therefore,  and  we  believe  justly  denied,  "  that  there 
ever  was  such  a  thing  in  the  world  as  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgus's  liturgy,"  and  we  assert  with  much  confi- 
dence, that  we  know  not  a  particle  of  proof  of  any 
such  thing. 

"Eusebius  A.  D.  315,  in  his  life  of  Constantine — 


320  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

records  even  a  form  appointed  by  the  Emperor  to  be 
used  by  his  foreign  soldiers."  The  first  Christian 
Emperor  being  by  the  laws  of  the  empire  the  pontifex 
maximus,  was  entitled  to  prescribe  to  the  heathenish 
part  of  his  army  their  religious  rites;  and  might  frame 
this  short  prayer  accommodated  to  "  saint,  to  savage 
and  to  sage,"  wherein  the  sovereignty  of  God  only  is 
mentioned,  without  other  titles,  and  not  a  word  either 
peculiar  to  Christianity,  or  offensive  to  heathens 
is  found.  This  was  furnished  to  all  in  the  Latin, 
that  they  might  read  and  be  prepared  to  rehearse  it ; 
and  on  Sunday  they  paraded  in  an  open  field,  when 
upon  a  signal  given,  they  pronounced  these  words  and 
no  more.  It  was  probably  intended  by  the  Emperor 
in  one  sense,  and  understood  by  his  pagan  soldiers  in 
another.  That  it  should  be  written  was  absolutely 
necessary,  otherwise  they  could  neither  judge  of,  nor 
use  it.  It  was  rather  a  profession  of  allegiance,  con- 
taining prayers  for  the  Emperor  and  his  family,  than 
an  act  of  worship.  This  is  the  first  form  made  to  be 
used  as  such  in  public,  which  the  writer  has  found, 
and  this  was  designed  for,  and  rehearsed  only  by  pa- 
gans, not  by  a  Christian  church.  The  residue  of  the 
army  rested  on  the  day,  and  without  any  hindrance  re- 
sorted for  worship  to  the  Christian  assemblies.  This 
singular  compromise  of  Constantine,  is  no  proof,  that 
there  existed  a  liturgy  of  written  prayers,  even  at  that 
period,  which  was  read  in  the  churches. 

"  He,"  Constantine,  "  also  speaks  of  appeasing  Christ 
by  sacred  prai/cr,  and  frequent  litanies,  as  a  mode  of  wor- 
ship well  established."  The  theology  of  this  passage 
was  in  character  both  for  Constantine  and  Eusebius ; 
for  neither  of  them  had  right  views  of  the  mediatorial 
character.  The  English  word  litany  means  a  form  of 
supplication  ;  the  Greek  word  litany  meant  supplication 
itself  ;  frequent  is  not  in  our  copy.  The  reasons  which 
prevented  the  anglicising  the  word  liturgy  in  Clement, 
should  have  excluded  the  English  word  litany  here. 
This  oversight  is  aggravated  by  the  use  of  italics, 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  321 

But  we  forbear ;  either  disappointment  may  have  ex- 
asperated zeal ;  or  the  writer  begged  the  question  un- 
guardedly; yet  justice  to  our  cause  demands,  that  we 
should  say,  what  every  discriminating  mind  will  dis- 
cern, that  the  Greek  words  afford  not  a  shadow  of 
proof  of  any  written  forms  of  prayer  whatever. 

"Gregory  Nazianzen  testifies  of — Basil  that  the 
appointment  of  prayers  was  among  his  remarkable 
deeds."  If  forms  had  existed  under  both  dispensa- 
tions, and  if  his  wonder-working  predecessor  had  left 
a  liturgy,  from  which  the  people  never  swerved  in 
act,  word,  or  mystic  type,  'tis  difficult  to  perceive  how 
Basil's  appointment  of  prayers  should  be  a  remarkable 
deed.  But  his  prayers  were  sung ;  and  how  Basil  pro- 
moted the  alternate  way  of  singing,  may  be  seen  by 
his  own  account  of  it,  in  his  sixty-third  epistle. 

"  This  father  also  records  that  Julian  the  apostate, 
in  his  endeavor  to  subvert  Christianity,  designed  to 
form  his  pagan  rites  of  worship  like  those  already 
established  by  the  Christians,  and  that  he  intended  to 
institute  a  form  of  prayer."  The  subtle  designs  of  Ju- 
lian we  admit,  and  have  admired  the  wisdom  and  pru- 
dence of  his  advices  to  pagan  priests,  but  a  "  form  of 
prayer"  was  not  that,  which  Gregory  Nazianzen 
meant,  or  Julian  intended.  That  the  original  word 
means  also  hymns  in  ancient  writers,  has  been  often 
abundantly  shown.  Also  the  words  rendered  form 
(literally,  type  in  part)  were  designed  to  express" partial 
resemblance.  Julian  knew,  that  the  Christian  assem- 
blies were  much  occupied  in,  and  highly  delighted 
with  their  alternate  psalmody,  and  he  wished  some- 
thing of  the  kind,  to  render  paganism  popular,  and 
balance  this  advantage,  possessed  by  the  Christian 
worship. 

We  have  now  followed  the  writer  in  the  Church 
Register  to  the  .fourth  century,  and  if  we  could  from 
thence  date  the  commencement  of  written  public 
forms  of  prayer,  so  many  were  the  corruptions  of  the 
church  at  that  period,  that  they  would  deserve  no 


322  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

more  regard,  than  if  they  had  commenced  in  the  pre- 
sent age.  But  to  justify  the  representations  we  gave 
in  a  former  number,  we  will  consider  the  next  proof, 
which  derives  much  plausibility  from  the  modern 
senses  of  some  of  the  terms. 

"  In  the  council  of  Laodicia  a  canon  was  arranged 
that  the  same  liturgy  of  prayer  should  be  used  at  the  ninlh 
hour  and  in  the  evening.  This  council  was  called 
about  A.  D.  310,  principally  on  account  of  an  innova- 
tion, which  some  persons  were  disposed  to  make  by 
offering  up  their  own  prayers  one  part  of  the  day,  and 
those  which  they  had  received  from  their  forefathers 
on  the  other."  The  original  word  is  liturgy,  which  to 
take  in  its  modern  sense  is  begging  the  question.  This 
meaning  ought  first  to  be  shown  to  be  as  old  as  that 
council;  but  it  then  meant  any  service  of  a  public  na- 
ture. The  Greek  word  liturgy  occurs  Acts.  xiii.  2. 
Rom.  xv.  16,  27.  Philip,  ii.  17,  30.  2  Cor.  ix.  12.  Heb. 
viii.  2,  6.  ix.  21,  but  no  one  ventures  to  prove  by  the 
Greek  of  those  passages  the  existence  of  set  forms  of 
written  prayers.  Also  the  word  in  the  canon  rendered 
prayers,  is  the  same  that  we  mentioned  as  often  signi- 
fying psalms  or  hymns,  and  so  it  was  understood  by 
some  of  the  Greek  writers  upon  this  canon.  But 
against  these  things  this  writer  has  provided  a  de- 
fence, by  giving  us  the  design  of  the  council  in  mak- 
ing this  canon ;  yet  it  is  all  perfectly  gratuitous ;  until 
he  has  proved,  what  he  has  alleged,  he  has  done  no- 
thing. We  might  also  introduce,  if  opinions  were  any 
thing,  that  of  a  Greek  historian,  who  says  on  this  ca- 
non, what  is  more  feasible,  that  there  were  afternoon 
hymns  sung,  but  the  people  used  others  as  vespers,  or 
evening  songs,  in  their  meetings  to  prevent  which  the 
synod  determined,  that  the  afternoon  praises  should 
also  be  used  in  the  evening.  They  designed  probably 
to  restrain  irregularities,  and  promote  devotion.  And 
the  canon  which  precedes  it,  and  which  provides,  that 
two  hymns  or  psalms  should  not  follow  in  immediate 
succession,  favors  the  opinion.     This  council  was  in- 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  323 

considerable,  is  omitted  by  some,  its  date  very  uncer- 
tain, its  authority  nothing,  and  some  of  its  canons  a 
reproach.  The  thirteenth  removed  from  the  people 
the  choice  of  their  ministers;  the  fifteenth  prohibited 
any  in  the  church  from  singing,  except  those  who 
went  into  the  gallery  of  singers.  Yet  it  may  be  some 
evidence  of  the  condition  of  the  churches  in  the  pro- 
consular Asia  at  that  time,  and  does  show,  that  either 
in  their  praises,  or  prayers,  the  people  were  restricted 
by  the  clergy  assuming  an  authority  not  their  due. 
But  long  afterwards,  the  third  council  of  Carthage 
gave  their  approbation  of  some  prayers,  and  directed 
that  the  people  should  also  use  those,  which  were  col- 
lected by  the  wiser  sort ;  and  they  express  their  object 
to  have  been  to  exclude  errors  in  faith.  These  things 
evince  a  gradual  progress  towards  the  public  use  of 
written  prayers,  and  are  consequently  wholly  irrecon- 
cileable  with  the  opinion,  that  the  church  had  a  liturgy, 
in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word,  from  the  days  of  the 
apostles. 

Cavilling  aga'mst  the  expediency  of  set  forms  could  not 
be,  when  neither  a  tongue  nor  a  pen  had  been  moved. 
Nor  could  we  err  from  "  the  example  prescribed  by 
God,  practised  and  sanctioned  by  our  Saviour  and  his 
apostles,  and  persevered  in  by  the  Christian  church," 
if  there  was  neither  such  example  or  practice.  Were 
the  arguments  of  this  writer  as  strong  as  his  confi- 
dence, his  labors  would  appear  to  more  advantage, 
but  he  cannot  expect  us  to  believe  without,  or  contrary 
to  evidence ;  if  such  he  has,  he  will  oblige  us  by  put- 
ting his  finger  upon  a  single  fact,  that  will  show  a  pub- 
lic liturgy  or  set  form  to  have  been  used  in  the  church, 
in  or  soon  after  the  apostolic  age ;  for  when  we  read 
of  the  effect  of  sinning  upon  a  single  point,  we  fear  to 
trust  that  theology,  which  supposes  any  crime  not  so 
heinous  as  to  exclude  from  salvation. 


324  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

Number  VI. 


The  professed  object  of  the  seventh  number,  under 
this  title  in  the  Church  Register,  is  to  show,  "what 
these  forms  and  prayers  were — employed  in  the"  an- 
cient "public  worship."  To  special  instances  of  writ- 
ten prayers,  both  national  and  private,  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, the  attention  of  the  reader  has  been  called ; 
that  psalms  were  sung  in  the  temple,  even  statedly,  no 
one  denies ;  also,  that  in  the  synagogues  the  Scrip- 
tures were  read,  and  sometimes  explained,  is  known 
to  all  who  read  the  gospels.  The  first  Christians  were 
Jews,  worshipped  in  the  synagogues  on  the  Sabbaths, 
in  their  own  assemblies  on  the  Lord's  day,  and  were 
considered  and  tolerated  by  the  Roman  government 
only  as  Jews,  the  worship  of  the  first  churches  must 
consequently  have  nearly  conformed  to  that  of  the 
synagogues ;  if  this  writer  therefore  can  show  a  litur- 
gy of  the  synagogue,  in  the  apostles1  days,  he  will  do 
much. 

"From  the  Mishna  we  learn  that  eighteen  collects, 
or  benedictions  were  used,  which  are  ascribed  to 
Ezra,  the  chief  of  the  great  Sanhedrim." 

The  Mishna  is  a  compilation  of  those  traditions, 
which  Christ  censured.  After  the  destruction  of  Je- 
rusalem by  Titus,  the  Jews  were  again  subjected  to  a 
second  destruction;  their  losses  in  public  men  and 
schools,  and  the  scattering  of  the  people  into  other 
countries,  are  the  reasons  assigned  for  the  writing  of 
their  traditions.  This  labour  was  accomplished  by  a 
Rabbi,  whose  name  is  still  fresh  with  them ;  and  was 
called  the  Mishna ;  the  date  whereof  is  placed  by 
universal  consent  between  A.  D.  150  and  200.  The 
credit  of  the  book  is  nothing,  except  with  the  sect, 
who  receive  its  fables.  The  Mishna,  differing  from 
othei  writings  of  the  ancient  Jews  on  the  origin  of  the 
benedictions,  a  comparison  has  been  made  by  Vitringa. 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  325 

The  evidence,  that  Ezra  wrote  the  benedictions,  comes 
too  late,  and  is  not  only  at  best  a  mere  hearsay,  but 
wholly  incredible.  Had  the  benedictions  existed  from 
the  days  of  Ezra,  they  must  have  been  unwritten  till 
the  Mishna,  which  consists  of  things  previously  un- 
written. If  such  traditional  prayers  were  possible,  and 
could  have  existed ;  why  are  they  not  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament?  But  they  can  tell  their  own  age. 
We  read  in  one  of  them ;  "dwell  in  the  midst  of  Jeru- 
salem, thy  city,  as  thou  hast  promised,  and  build  it 
quickly  in  our  days,  with  a  building,  that  shall  continue 
for  ever."  In  another  it  is  said — "bring  again  the  le- 
vitical  ministry  into  the  temple  of  thy  house,  and  ac- 
cept quickly,  with  love  and  good  will,  the  sacrifices  of 
the  Israelites,  to  be  consumed  with  fire,  with  their 
prayers,"  &c.  Thus  do  the  benedictions  themselves 
show,  that  they  were  written,  when  the  Jews  had  nei- 
ther city,  nor  temple,  nor  sacrifices.  That  they  were 
composed  since  the  dispersion,  is  evident  from  these 
words ;  "call  us  by  the  sound  of  the  great  trumpet  to 
our  liberty,  and  lift  the  standard,  to  which  all  our  dis- 
persion may  be  gathered  from  the  four  regions  of  the 
earth  to  our  own  land."  Also  when  they  ask;  "let 
there  be  no  hope  to  the  apostates  from  religion,  let  all 
heretics  suddenly  perish,  how  many  soever  they  be. 
May  the  kingdom  of  pride  be  eradicated,  and  suddenly 
broken  in  our  days,"  they  must  have  intended  by  apos- 
tates and  heretics  Jewish  Christians,  and  by  the  proud 
kingdom  the  Roman  empire.  The  sacrifices  of  the 
temple  were  of  divine  authority,  until  the  death  of 
Christ;  and  they  still,  though  improperly,  continued 
when  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  written ;  and  also 
when  Clement  wrote  the  letter,  cited  in  our  last  num- 
ber. But  as  long  as  the  city,  temple,  sacrifices,  and 
levitical  ministry  remained,  these  prayers  could  not 
have  been  offered.  Not  only  is  it  absurd  to  suppose, 
that  either  Christ,  or  his  apostles,  or  the  primitive 
churches  ever  did,  or  with  propriety  could  have  offer- 
ed these  prayers ;    but  there  is  no  evidence,  upon 

2D 


326  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

which  to  found  even  a  probability,  that  the  Jews  them- 
selves offered  them,  until  after  that  dispersion,  which 
followed  the  second  destruction  of  the  Jewish  people. 
It  is  asserted  that  these  benedictions,  "formed  their 
principal  prayers,  and  the  remainder  probably  were 
made  up  of  the  precatory  parts  of  the  psalms."  As 
it  is  certain,  that  the  eighteen  benedictions  were  never 
offered  in  prayer  in  the  temple,  for  then  the  people 
must  have  spoken  falsely,  because  the  prayers  do 
themselves  say,  that  there  was  neither  temple,  nor  sa- 
crifice, nor  priestly  services;  so  the  probability  that, 
"the  remainder,  were  made  up  of  the  precatory  parts 
of  the  psalms,"  is  destitute  of  proof,  unless  singing  be 
called  reading.  In  the  synagogues  they  were  no  doubt 
read  with  the  other  Scriptures ;  but  in  the  temple  the 
psalms  were  sung  by  the  order  of  singers. 

The  "hours  of  prayer"  were  those  in  which  the 
sacrifices  were  offered,  and  the  incense  burned,  and 
whilst  the  priests  were  thus  occupied,  prayers  were 
the  business  of  the  people,  who  "stood  without,"  as 
they  did  at  the  time  of  the  vision  of  Zacharias,  each 
praying  for  himself  like  the  pharisee  and  publican. 
The  Jews  did  often  at  their  meals  each  ask  a  blessing 
audibly  for  himself;  and  with  propriety,  if  all  prayer 
be  in  its  nature  several  and  personal,  even  when  joined 
in  by  others. 

We  are  again  told  that,  "In  the  apostolic  writings 
we  read  of  no  prohibition  against  the  use  of  establish- 
ed forms."  True :  nor  are  they  mentioned  at  all,  be- 
cause they  had  no  existence.  "It  becomes  therefore 
those,  who  are  a  form  to  themselves,  to  show  their 
reasons,  why  they  reject  this  custom."  There  was  no 
such  custom  among  either  Jews  or  Christians  till  the 
period  when  the  church  was  corrupted ;  and  this  cir- 
cumstance is  a  good  reason  for  rejecting  forms.  They, 
who  were  a  law  to  themselves,  were  heathens ;  and  we, 
who  are  a  form  to  ourselves,  are  also  left  to  "uncoven  anted 
meraj;"  but  are  nevertheless  able  to  show,  both  the 
reason  of  our  hope,  and  also  reasons  for  rejecting  writ- 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  327 

ten  forms  of  public  prayers.  We  have  many  special 
reasons  for  objecting  to  the  forms  used  both  by  the 
Catholic,  and  Episcopal  churches,  which  we  must 
show  if  compelled.  We  have  other  general  ones ; 
we  find  in  experience  no  need  of  them ;  and  doubt 
their  utility  in  public  worship;  out  of  the  abundance 
of  the  heart,  the  mouth  can  speak.  If  ministers  be 
incompetent  to  lead  without  such  help,  they  are  unfit 
for  their  office.  Forms  restrict  devotion,  cramp  the 
desires  of  the  heart,  and  by  long  familiarity  become 
dead  and  insipid ;  they  have  also  an  unhappy  tendency 
to  supersede  a  mental  intercourse  with  God,  and  to 
render  men  contented  with  external  homage.  But 
above  all  we  think,  that  no  uninspired  men  have  a  right 
to  saddle  the  church  of  Christ  with  a  set  of  words  and 
phrases,  to  which  the  desires,  confessions,  and  peti- 
tions of  the  people,  must  be  confined  in  public  wor- 
ship. 

That  universals  cannot  be  deduced  from  particu- 
lars, is  not  less  a  rule  in  morals,  than  in  reasoning ; 
but  the  promise  of  success  given  by  the  Saviour  to 
the  prayer  of  two  or  three,  who  have  agreed  to  ask 
for  some  common  object,  though  described  as  a  spe- 
cial case,  and  left  by  him  optional,  is  incautiously  by 
the  unknown  writer  converted  into  a  general  rule,  and 
made  a  duty.  From  hence  also  he  has  inferred,  that 
— "every  prayer  uttered  extempore  in  the  congregation, 
must  be  unknown  to  the  community,  till  it  is  offered, 
and  cannot  therefore  be  considered  as  the  joint  and 
agreed  prayer  of  the  persons  met  together  for  public 
worship."  It  cannot  be  a  duty  in  every  case  to  agree 
previously  on  the  object  for  which  we  are  to  pray ; 
also  it  is  not  necessary,  to  the  agreement  implied  in 
Christ's  language  that  the  very  words  of  the  prayer 
should  be  previously  ascertained.  Nor  does  the  Sa- 
viour's language  require  that  the  agreement  be  even 
previous  to  the  prayer ;  if  the  same  petitions,  or  even 
desires,  are  offered  by  different  persons,  his  design  is 
fulfilled. 


328  LITURGICAL   CONSIDERATIONS. 

To  pray  with  the  understanding  is  an  apostolic  ad- 
vice ;  whence  he  also  argues  the  necessity  of  written 
prayers,  because, — "certainly  no  one,  except  the  per- 
son who  is  the  organ  of  the  prayer,  can  fulfil  the  apos- 
tle's direction  to  pray  with  the  understanding."  So 
often  as  men  take  the  language  of  Scripture  in  other 
than  its  original  sense,  they  must  mistake  the  truth. 
This  writer  uses  the  word  "understanding"  for  a  pre- 
vious knowledge  of  the  zvords  of  the  prayer ;  but  the 
apostle  meant  by  it  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter, 
and  of  the  propriety  of  asking  at  the  time  of  uttering  the 
prayer.  "How  shall  the  unlearned  say  amen — seeing 
he  understandeth  not  what  thou  sayest,"  because  pray- 
ing in  an  unknown  tongue.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
"the  organ  of  prayer"  should  previously  know  the 
words  he  is  to  use.  The  most  affecting,  fervent,  and 
best  prayers,  which  believers  ever  make,  are  without 
previous  arrangement,  or  preparation,  except  an  effort 
to  obtain  a  humble  composed  frame  of  mind.  He 
who  speaks,  and  they  who  hear,  and  join  with  the 
heart  in  such  prayer,  do,  in  the  sense  of  the  apostle, 
pray  with  the  spirit  and  the  understanding  also. 

Because  the  Roman  Christians  were  divided  about 
weeks  and  days,  the  apostle  prayed  God  to  grant  them 
a  sameness  of  views,  that  they  might  unanimously  with 
one  mouth  glorify  God.  Horn.  xv.  6.  This  is  made  an 
argument  for  written  prayers,  because  one  mind  and 
one  mouth, — "could  not  be,  if  they  did  not  use  prayers 
common  to  all."  But  the  apostle  prayed,  that  God 
would  give  them  the  same  views,  and  not  a  written 
form ;  for  he  concluded,  that  with  this  gift  their  words 
would  be  sufficient.  The  Corinthian  church  having 
become  discordant,  the  apostle  advised  them  to  speak 
the  same  thing,  and  he  perfectly  joined  together  in  the  same 
mind,  and  the  same  judgment,  i  Cor.  i.  10,  "which  is  an 
express  injunction  for  unity  of  worship  and  unity  of 
faith;  the  first  of  which  is  preserved  by  established 
prayers,  known  before,  and  agreed  upon  by  all;  and 
the  latter  by  a  form  of  belief,  or  creed,  assented  to  by 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  329 

agreeing  Christians."  When  any  thing  is  enjoined, 
whatever  is  necessary  to  such  obedience  is  also  com- 
manded; but  every  thing  which  might  promote  the 
end  is  not  also  enjoined.  If  forms  may  be  thus  justified, 
so  may  images,  because  they  enliven  devotion:  in  like 
manner,  an  establishment,  supported  by  an  inquisition, 
since  they  produce  unity  of  faith,  must  be  lawful. 
The  creed  foisted  in,  we  suppose  either  to  be  the  apos- 
tles, which  no  one  of  them  ever  saw;  or  that  of 
Athanasius,  made  after  his  day,  both  of  which  are  in 
the  main  good,  though  of  no  authority  ;  but  how  the 
rehearsal  of  a  creed  can  be  an  act  of  worship,  must 
be  left  to  him  to  decide,  who  can  so  happily  prove  that 
the  words  of  the  apostle  require  the  things. 

In  "praying  always  with  all  prayer  and  supplication  with 
the  Spirit" — the  word  rendered  supplication  exactly  an- 
swers to  the  term  litany;  "and  it  has  great  force,"  in 
the  words  "in  every  thing  by  prayer  and  supplication  with 
thanksgiving" — "In  this  passage  we  have  a  direction 
from  the  apostle  to  use  in  our  public  service,  prayers, 
litanies  and  thanksgivings."  What  force  can  this  wri- 
ter intend,  except  in  support  of  a  litany  in  the  sense 
of  the  compilers  of  the  prayer-book?  Unless  it  be  "a 
direction  from  the  apostle"  how  to  make  the  prayer 
book,  these  quotations  are  wholly  irrelevant.  Thus 
understood,  his  argument  is  level  to  the  meanest  capa- 
city. The  apostle  has  inculcated,  besides  prayer, 
which  means  "that  mode  of  addressing  God,  which  in 
the  people's  name  is  offered  up  by  the  minister,  and 
responded  to,  with  amen,  by  them,"  also,  the  duty  of 
supplication ;  but  the  Greek  word  for  "supplication,  ex- 
actly answers  to  litany;"  therefore  he  has  given  "di- 
rection" to  make  a  litany.  The  writer's  pious  zeal  for 
his  prayer  book  probably  prevented  his  discerning, 
that  he  used  the  word  litany  in  a  sense  not  intended 
by  the  apostle;  yet  the  effect  is,  that  his  argument  is 
worth  nothing. 

The  professed  design  of  this  number  was  to  consi- 
der, "what  these  forms  and  prayers  were,  in  their  pub- 

2d2 


330  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

lie  worship;"  but  the  tolal  failure,  both  with  regard  to 
the  Jews,  and  primitive  Christians,  is  a  practical  proof 
of  the  weakness  of  his  cause. 

When  the  desire  of  Truth,  or  the  propriety  of  self- 
vindication  leads  the  unprejudiced  to  investigate  the 
origin  of  liturgies,  they  will  be  found  to  have  arisen 
long  after  the  days  of  the  apostles;  first  in  individual 
churches,  and  then  to  have  obtained  in  larger  districts, 
as  a  merely  human  contrivance  professedly  to  exclude 
error;  and  afterwards  to  have  been  continued  as  a 
master-piece  of  policy  to  perpetuate  innovations,  and 
supersede  the  sacred  text. 

Though  to  confess  guilt,  of  which  we  are  not 
conscious,  to  ask  for  blessings  whereof  we  feel  no 
need ;  and  to  give  thanks  for  spiritual  operations,  of 
which  we  are  not  the  subjects,  be  insincerity,  and  there- 
fore guilt ;  yet  because  written  prayers,  when  ortho- 
dox are  lawful  means  of  instruction,  there  ought  to  be 
no  censure  for  those,  who  use  them ;  but  to  represent 
them  as  an  ordinance  of  God,  is  to  depart  from  facts, 
and  to  censure  unjustly  those  who  reject  them ;  to  re- 
pel such  attempts  is  a  debt  we  owe  to  truth,  to  the  dis- 
charge of  which,  we  desire  only  her  evidence. 

To  pray  is  the  highest  privilege,  and  most  important 
duty ;  and  he  is  the  happiest  who  has  a  heart  always  to 
pray ;  the  cultivation  of  such  a  frame  is  the  best  course 
we  can  pursue  in  life.  To  the  unrenewed,  who  never 
pray,  no  mode  can  supply  their  defect  of  disposition ; 
but  the  child  by  adoption  will  not  be  prevented  from 
his  delightful  work;  whether  the  public  prayers  be 
written,  or  spoken,  he  will  make  them  his  own,  and 
advance  from  strength  to  strength,  until  he  reaches 
that  mount,  where  prayer  gives  place  to  praise. 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  331 


Number  VII. 


The  subject  of  the  eighth  number  is  declared  to  be, 
"  The  forms  used  in  the  church  in  all  ages."  By 
"forms"  the  writer  must  intend,  in  this  place,  modes 
of  worship,  of  whatsoever  kind ;  otherwise  his  first 
Scriptural  proofs1  have  no  beai'ing  upon  his  subject. 
His  error  in  styling  Timothy  bishop  of  Crete,  is  as  in- 
nocent in  effect,  as  it  was  in  intention;  for,  not  abid- 
ing at  Ephesus,  the  youth  followed  his  spiritual  father 
into  Macedonia,  and  never  appears  to  have  returned. 
But  he  ought  not  to  have  been  degraded  from  an 
evangelist,  we  mean  not  the  modern  unscriptural 
sense  of  the  term  ;  he  had  the  extraordinary  superin- 
tendence of  the  Spirit,  and  was  subordinate  only  to  the 
guidance  of  apostles. 

"  I  exhort,  therefore,  that  first  of  all,  supplications,  that 
is,  litanies,"b  &c.  That  is,  litanies?  neither  is  the 
Greek  word  here  litanies ;  nor  does  the  Greek  word 
litany  at  all  mean  litany  in  the  present  sense  of  the 
word ;  nor  consequently,  can  any  argument  thence 
arise  for  writing  what  are  called  litanies  in  prayer- 
books.  "  This  injunction  comprehends  a  complete 
analysis  of  what  should  constitute  the  precatory  part 
of  public  worship."  There  is  nothing  of  any  "  form 
used  in  the  church"  of  Ephesus,  the  exhortation  rather 
implies  that  there  was  none.  So  far  from  a  direction 
to  use  a  liturgy,  the  language  shows  them  for  what 
they  are  to  pray ;  the  prayer  was  therefore  unwritten. 
If  this  writer's  liturgy  is  conformed  to  the  parts  and 
kinds  of  prayer  here  described,  yet  the  apostle  knew 
nothing  of  written  liturgies,  nor  does  the  passage  re- 
quire, or  even  contemplate,  any  such  thing. 

a  Col.  IS.  16,  17,  iv.  2,  3.     1  Thess.  ii.  11,  12. 
t»  1  Tim.  ii.  1,  2. 


332  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

"  Holdfast  the  form  of  sound  words — refers  to  a  formu- 
lary of  faith,  as  a  creed ;  or  a  form  of  prayer,  as  a 
liturgy.  Here  then  is  authority  for  the  repeating  of 
creeds."  "  Hold  fast,"  literally  have,  possess,  or  retain, 
is  not  to  "  repeat"  The  "  sound  words,"  were  not 
written,  for  the  apostle  adds,  "  which  thou  hast  heard 
from  me."  They  were  to  be  retained,  not  in  letters, 
but "  in  faith  and  love."  The  adjective  "  sound,"  means 
orthodox,  excluding  time  and  progressive  action ;  the 
original  is  the  participle  healing.  "  Sowid  words," 
mean  a  scheme  of  salutary  doctrines,  not  a  "  form  of 
prayer,  as  a  liturgy."  But  the  writer  has  not  a  word 
in  the  passage  to  help  him  to  carry  back  a  creed,  a 
liturgy,  and  a  canonical  bishop  to  the  days  of  the 
apostle ;  they  all  arose  long  afterwards.  Creeds  were 
first  made  by  individuals,  then  by  councils.  The  pri- 
mus presbyter,  by  increase  of  power,  became  a  paro- 
chial bishop,  like  the  Presbyterian  pastor ;  and  after- 
wards a  diocesan.  Forms  of  prayer  were  introduced 
for  the  prevention  of  heresy,  first  in  particular  church- 
es ;  this  power  the  councils  afterwards  regulated,  and 
thus  rendered  forms  provincial.  Could  the  construc- 
tion of  this  text,  attempted  by  this  writer,  be  estab- 
lished, and  the  assumption,  that  episcopacy,  either 
parochial  or  diocesan,  did  then  exist,  which  is  contrary 
to  historical  verity,  he  would  have  accomplished  an 
anticipation  of  the  existence  of  creeds  and  liturgies, 
of  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  of  the  monopoly  of  this 
right  of  the  respective  churches,  several  centuries  ; 
all  of  which  things  fell  in  gradually  afterwards.  But 
in  such  construction  of  the  text,  every  word  of  the 
apostle  is  taken  in  a  sense  which  he  did  not  intend. 

"  In  Hebrews  x.  22,  there  is  an  intimation  of  pre- 
vious absolution,  and  preparatory  cleansing."  He 
who  comes  to  Christ  by  faith  finds  absolution,  but 
neither  in  this,  nor  in  any  other  passage  of  Scripture, 
is  there  "  an  intimation  of  previous  absolution."  Sa- 
cerdotal is  an  infringement  of  God's  prerogative,  who 
alone  can  forgive  sin.    That  the  act  is  declarative  not 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  333 

authoritative,  ministerial  not  judicial,  softens  the  error, 
yet  may  it  delude  an  immortal  soul  with  a  false  pass- 
port to  heaven.  Absolution  prior  to  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury was  matter  of  prayer;  afterwards  it  assumed 
the  form  of  a  sentence  passed.  By  "  absolution  and 
preparatory  cleansing,"  may  have  been  intended  that, 
which,  according  to  the  council  of  Carthage,  pre- 
served by  Cyprian,  accompanies  baptism  when  per- 
formed by  ministers,  not,  in  their  view,  heretical.  In 
the  first  canon  of  that  council  we  read,  "  It  is  fit  that 
water  be  first  purified  and  sanctified  by  the  Spirit, 
that  it  may  be  able  by  its  own  baptism  to  wash  away 
the  sins  of  the  man  who  is  baptized."  In  the  forms  of 
prayer  vindicated  by  this  writer,  we  accordingly  read, 
"  Sanctify  this  water  to  the  mystical  washing  away 
of  sin."  That  water  should  wash  away  sin,  is  indeed  a 
mystery,  for  a  physical  cause  then  produces  a  moral 
effect,  that  which  is  not  contained  in  itself.  That  by 
washing  away  of  sin  is  not  meant  the  guilt  of  sin,  ap- 
pears by  his  eleventh  article,  "  we  are  accounted 
righteous  before  God,  only  for  the  merits  of  Christ;" 
it  must'be  understood  consequently  of  the  pollution; 
but  the  purification  of  this,  is  expressly  referred  to  the 
Holy  Spirit  in  the  thanks  prescribed  in  the  same  forms, 
"  that  it  hath  pleased  thee"  the  Father,  "  to  regenerate 
this  infant  with  thy  Holy  Spirit."  Thus,  therefore, 
we  are  taught,  by  the  same  forms,  both  that  the  water 
and  the  Spirit  remove  moral  pollution ;  but  how,  the 
writer  can  best  show.  That  baptism  is  an  absolution, 
or  pardon  of  sin,  is  an  old  opinion ;  but  to  gain  our 
credence,  better  proof  is  required  than  the  canon  of  a 
fallible  council.  Yet  its  continuance  in  the  church,  as 
if  a  true  doctrine,  may  have  been  effected  by  the  in- 
fluence of  written  forms.  Such  a  fact  argues  much 
for  written  liturgies,  with  those  who  hold  the  doctrine 
of  baptismal  regeneration  ;  but  it  must  have  an  oppo- 
site tendency  in  the  view  of  those  who  reject  the  doc- 
trine, with  as  little  ceremony  as  they  do  the  written 
forms. 


334  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERHTIONS. 

"Confess  your  faults  one  to  another,  and  pray  one  for 
another.*  In  this  there  is  a  mutual  and  general  con- 
fession, as  well  as  a  mutual  and  general  prayer  en- 
joined." That  auricular  confession  was  unknown  to 
the  ancients,  that  public  confessions  were  required 
only  for  public  offences,  and  that  private  confessions 
were  optional,  are  points,  in  which  it  is  presumed  we 
have  no  disagreement  with  the  writer.  We  may, 
nevertheless,  not  understand  this  passage  in  the  same 
manner.  The  language  appears  to  us  to  describe 
mutual  private  confessions  of  our  weaknesses,  that  we 
may  obtain  advice,  and  aid  each  other  by  joint 
prayers ;  and  instead  of  a  presumption  favorable  to 
written,  or  precomposed  prayers,  we  discern  rather 
an  implication  of  prayers  suited  to  the  particular  trials 
of  such  persons. 

"  I  pass  now  to  the  fathers,  from  whom  the  same 
instances,  which  have  served  to  prove  the  use  of  set 
forms,  may  be  advanced  as  authorities  for  the  forms 
themselves."  Yet  is  there  not  a  single  instance  of  a 
written  prayer  produced,  except  the  Lord's  prayer. 
The  singing  of  psalms  he  could  easily  show.  We  also 
use  psalms  and  the  Lord's  prayer,  and  have  no  objec- 
tion to  the  creed ;  but  do  not  use  it  in  worship.  As 
no  early  example  has  been,  or  can  be  produced,  of  a 
liturgy,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term ;  nor  a  fact 
made  to  appear  in  opposition  to  the  representation  we 
have  repeatedly  given,  of  the  manner  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  set  forms,  it  is  unnecessary  again  to  pass 
through  the  same  things.  The  only  liturgy  in  this 
number,  said  to  have  existed,  is  that  of  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgus,  which  we  have  seen  was  only  a  doxology, 
from  which  Basil  in  Arian  times  departed.  The  other 
testimony  of  Basil  regarded  psalmody.  Now  he  is 
introduced  saying,  "When  the  people  have  confessed 
themselves  unto  God  rising  up  from  their  prayers,  they 
betake  themselves  to  psalmody  ;"  which  may  be  com- 

c  James  v.  16. 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  335 

pared  with  Basil  on  the  thirty-seventh  psalm,  when 
he  observes :  "  I  do  not  make  confession  with  my  lips 
to  be  seen  of  the  world;  but  inwardly  in  my  heart, 
where  no  eye  sees ;"  whereby  it  will  appear,  that  he 
must  have  meant  secret,  or  at  least  unwritten  prayers. 
His  proofs,  he  thinks,  "  agree  in  this  point,  the  ne- 
cessity of  public,  common,  and  unanimous,  therefore, 
precomposed  prayers."  Thus  does  he  concede,  that 
he  has  so  far  failed  of  exhibiting  "  forms  used  in  the 
church  in  all  ages,"  that  he  has  no  otherwise  proved 
"  precomposed"  prayers,  than  as  such  are  to  be  in- 
ferred from  the  necessity  of  "  public,"  "  common," 
and  "  unanimous  prayers."  We  suppose  the  prayers 
in  our  churches  to  be  "public,"  for  all  hear  them ; 
"  common,"  for  every  one,  who  chooses,  makes  them 
his  own,  using  the  same  petitions,  or  mentally  saying 
as  he  thinks  fit ;  and  "  unanimous"  for  all  the  wor- 
shippers, in  adopting  the  same  expressions,  and  hav- 
ing the  same  ideas,  have,  as  nearly  as  possible,  one 
mind;  yet  the  confessions,  petitions,  and  thanksgivings 
may  be  those  which  occur  to  the  speaker  without 
preparation,  or  even  a  single  "precomposed"  sentence. 
If  prayers  may  be  thus  public,  common,  and  unani- 
mous, without  being  precomposed,  the  argument  of 
the  writer  has  failed  ;  and  by  his  own  representation, 
he  has  produced  no  proofs  of  the  use  of  forms  in  the 
first  ages  of  Christianity. 


Number  VIII. 


Every  man's  conscience  testifies,  he  is  to  account 
for  himself;  and  thus  evinces  his  right  to  choose  and 
act.     As  those,  who  are  allied  in  sentiments  will  in- 


336  LITURGICAL   CONSIDERATIONS. 

cline,  so  they  have  a  right,  to  associate  for  mutual 
improvement.  If  a  single  church  may  justify  itself  to 
men,  on  the  foundation  of  the  natural  rights  of  its  mem- 
bers, so  may  denominations.  And  so  long  as  these 
respect  the  natural  rights  of  each  other,  a  diversity  in 
doctrines,  or  modes  of  worship,  constitutes  no  just 
ground  of  complaint.  In  America  our  natural  rights  are 
guaranteed  by  the  authorised  expressions  of  the  social 
compact;  and  nothing  is  to  be  apprehended  from 
those,  who  hold,  "That  the  church  hath  power  to  de- 
cree rites  and  ceremonies,  and  authority  in  controver- 
sies of  faith."  Were  we  to  hold  this,  in  opposition  to 
the  natural  right  of  freedom  from  physical  constraint 
and  restraint,  we  could  neither  justify  the  reformation 
effected  by  our  fathers,  nor  claim  liberty  of  con- 
science, nor  preach  the  gospel.  Thus  understood  the 
church  is  infallible,  and  reason  an  empty  name.  When 
the  equivocal  term,  "  the  church,"  is  interpreted  as  ex- 
tending to  all  denominations  of  Christians,  the  article, 
however  defective  of  support,  has  lost  its  offensiveness. 
They  who  receive  it  in  a  peculiar  sense,  being  ortho- 
dox to  themselves,  claim  to  be  the  only  church  of 
Christ,  and  can  join  with  no  others  in  the  efforts  of 
the  day.  Under  this  construction  our  fathers  groaned ; 
to  us,  the  claim  is  as  innocent,  as  that  of  the  man  who 
thinks  the  world  his  own. 

In  the  ninth  number  of  "  Liturgical  Considerations" 
in  the  Church  Register,  the  respectable  writer — "  ana- 
lyzes the  constituted  forms  used  in  the  public  service 
of  the  church  of  England."  His  views,  on  many 
points,  no  otherwise  affect  others,  than  as  they  imply 
a  censure.  After  the  "  exhortation"  in  the  morning 
service,  he  introduces  the  "  confession,"  affirming, 
that  "  it  comprises  all  those  things,  which  each  person 
individually,  and  each  society  collectively  has  need  to 
confess."  Perhaps,  nevertheless,  when  the  pious  wor- 
shipper has  returned  to  his  closet  and  his  knees,  he 
may  feel  the  propriety  of  some  further  confessions. 
He  speaks  "  of  the  blessings  promised  by  the  Saviour 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  337 

to  all  those  who  repent;"  but  the  "  confession"  itself 
more  correctly  represents  the  promises  to  be  of  God, 
"  declared  unto  mankind  in  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord." 

The  "  absolution,"  in  the  fiist  form,  is  the  priest's 
claim  of  "  power,"  and  profession  of  compliance  with 
a  commandment  to  pronounce  the  penitent  forgiven : 
in  the  second,  the  language  is  precatory,  but  spoken  to 
the  people.  To  each  they  say,  "  amen;"  but  not  as  a 
prayer,  because  it  affirms  no  address  to  Deity.  The 
propriety  of  the  "  confession"  is  clear,  but  of  the  "  ab- 
solution" problematical.  If  we  should  after  the  morn- 
ing prayer,  which  always  contains  a  confession, 
speak,  on  every  Sabbath,  of  the  power  given  us  to  de- 
clare all  those  forgiven,  who  have  confessed  their  sins ; 
either  the  people  would  suppose  us  vain  of  our  office; 
or  think  their  own  confessions  of  great  account.  Since 
the  heart  is  known  to  God,  humility  seems  to  require, 
that  our  imperfect  services  should  be  left  with  Him, 
under  a  conviction  that  they  merit  no  good.  But, 
"  the  sincere  Christian  having  repented  and  confessed," 
receives  "  the  declaration  of  pardon  in  God's  name  and 
words."  Although  neither  the  profession  of  Christi- 
anity, howsoever  sincere,  nor  the  reading  or  rehears- 
ing of  the  morning  service  is  any  certain  proof  of  re- 
pentance ;  yet  does  this  language  imply  it ;  and  if 
herein  the  writer  accords  not  with  the  book,  which  he 
explains,  it  is  unaccountable,  that  a  ministerial  absolu- 
tion should  have  been  made  a  part  of  the  daily  ser- 
vice. The  Latin  fathers  of  the  middle  ages  considered 
oral  confession,  or  even  a  groan,  to  amount  unto  re- 
pentance, "  Si  ingemueris  salvaberis."  But  if  evangeli- 
cal repentance  be  something  vastly  different ;  and  if 
many  of  the  pious  preachers,  who  use  these  forms,  do 
not  intend  to  declare  an  absolution  of  sin  to  every  one 
who  made  the  confession ;  nor  to  account  this  repent- 
ance; why  should  this  service  continually  exhibit  an 
insufficient  repentance,  and  force  ministers  to  pro- 
nounce a  forgiveness  of  sin,  which  they  do  not  believe 
they  have  a  right  to  absolve.  But  the  book  is  con- 
2E 


338  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

sistent  with  itself,  for  the  justification  supposed  to  be 
conferred  by  baptism,  rests  also  upon  a  verbal  profes- 
sion and  promise. 

Because  the  "  absolution"  closes  with  the  name  of 
the  Saviour,  the  writer  observes ;  "  that  there  is  not  one 
prayer  in  the  church  service,  which  does  not  depend 
entirely  for  its  hope  of  acceptance  with  God,  upon 
the  alone  merits  of  Christ."  This  claim  is  something, 
for  Christ  is  the  way  to  the  Father,  directs  us  to  ask  in 
his  name,  and  through  him  alone  we  have  a  rational 
hope.  But  bold  assertions  ought  not  to  have  been  sub- 
stituted for  matters  of  fact,  against  an  objection  so 
old.  Whilst  we  congratulate  the  writer  for  his  ortho- 
doxy in  believing,  "  that  all  prayers,  whatever  they 
may  be,  and  all  services,  should  be  done  in  the  name 
of  the  Lord  Jesus ;"  we  observe  in  the  forms  he  would 
inculcate,  in  numerous  places,  prayers  offered  to  the 
Mediator  as  such,  and  not  to  God ;  and  we  see  not  how 
these  are  offered  through  the  Mediator  unto  God.  Thus, 
"O  Lamb  of  God,  who  takest  away  the  sins  of  the 
world,  have  mercy  on  us ;"  either  addresses  Christ  as 
Mediator,  or  as  God :  on  either  interpretation,  it  is  not 
a  prayer  to  God,  through  Christ.  If  it  be  replied  that 
Christ  is  God,  we  answer  it  is  true ;  and  as  such  he  is 
ever  an  object  of  worship  in  and  with  the  Father  ;  but 
as  Christ  he  is  not  God,  but  the  anointed,  that  is  com- 
missioned of  God  in  a  subordinate  character.  As  Me- 
diator he  is  also  our  priest,  through  whom  we  approach 
the  Father  in  our  prayers,  relying  upon  his  sacrifice; 
and  our  prophet  directing  us  by  his  word  to  come  in 
his  name.  Though  present  with  his  people,  it  is  only 
as  God,  his  human  nature  has  ascended  and  will  re- 
main in  heaven  until  he  comes  to  judgment.  If  his 
soul  and  body  were  here,  the  human  nature  could  not 
help  us,  for  it  could  be  only  in  one  place  at  a  time. 
But  the  writer  observes,  "The  Lamb  of  God  is  set  before 
our  eyes  of  faith,  and  with  words  of  fervour  we  sup- 
pilcate  him  to  take  away  our  sins.  The  wounded  spirit 
finds   comfort  in   communing  with   God   in  various 


MTURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  339 

prayers  and  supplications."  But  it  should  be  remem- 
bered there  is  one  object  of  worship,  and  no  more ; 
and  on  this  point,  we  are  allowed  no  variety  in  our 
prayers.  Jesus  as  a  man  does  .not  hear  us.  "The 
Lamb  of  God,"  expresses  two  distinct  ideas.  When 
the  "Lamb — is  set  before  our  eyes  of  faith,"  he  is  the 
ground  of  our  acceptance  with  God,  but  the  sacrifice 
is  man  not  God  :  let  the  fervour  of  our  wounded  spirit 
be  what  it  may,  we  are  to  worship  God  only;  and  in 
the  way  which  he  has  prescribed,  and  in  no  other. 
The  expressions,  "Lord  have  mercy;"  "Christ  have 
mercy,"  so  repeatedly  echoed  from  the  minister  and 
the  people,  as  to  become  mere  sounds,  were  taken  from 
the  popish  forms,  not  from  the  word  of  God.  They 
not  only  destroy  the  solemnity  of  public  worship  but 
are  theologically  incorrect ;  for  neither  may  we  ap- 
proach general  mercy  without  a  mediator,  nor  put  the 
mediator  as  such  on  the  throne  of  God ;  his  place  is 
only  on  the  right  hand. 

The  "Gloria  Patri"  is  a  very  suitable  conclusion  of 
the  praises,  but  the  frequent  repetition  of  it,  in  the  same 
service,  by  the  western  churches,  and  especially  those 
useless  words,  "as  it  was  in  the  beginning,  is  now,  and 
ever  shall  be,"  which  were  added  long  afterwards, 
seems  rather  intended  for  pomp,  than  devotion. 

The  "Gloria  in  excelsis"  so  far  as  the  angel's  words 
extend,  is  suited  to  particular  occasions,  and  was  sung 
at  Christmas,  on  communion  seasons,  and  also  as  a 
morning  hymn.  We  have  not  found  it  in  use  before 
the  fourth  century.  In  the  word  of  God  we  find  no 
one  praying  after  the  manner  of  the  residue  of  this 
prayer.  The  Lord's  prayer  was  directed  to  the  Father 
as  God,  and  so  the  first  clause  of  this  might  have  been 
understood,  notwithstanding  the  perplexing  similarity 
of  its  terms,  which  scarcely  admit  of  intelligible  dis- 
crimination; but  the  second  clause  is  directed  solely 
to  the  Son ;  at  the  close,  the  Third  Person  is  distinctly 
addressed,  and  the  writer  denominates  the  whole  "a 
joyful  recognition  of  the  blessed  Trinity."     We  have 


340  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

no  dispute  with  him  about  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
we  allow  each  person  to  be  God,  but  not  each  to  be  a 
God.  They  may  be  named  in  succession,  as  in  the 
benediction ;  yet  are  they  one  God,  and  one  essence ; 
each  may  be  named  alone  as  comprehending  deity, 
but  then  the  other  persons  are  not  excluded.  In  the 
"Gloria  in  excelsis"  the  Son  is  not  worshipped  merely 
as  God,  but  as  mediator.  "Thou  who  sittest  at  the 
right  hand  of  God,  have  mercy  upon  us."  The  Son, 
as  God,  is  above  being  exalted;  it  is  the  glorified  hu- 
man nature  of  Christ  which  is  placed  at  the  right  hand 
of  God,  which  means  promoted  to  the  highest  created 
dignity.  Mercy  comes  to  man  through  him,  but  it  is 
from  God  himself,  and  to  him  should  we  apply  for 
mercy  through  this  glorified  intercessor.  "For  thou 
only  art  holy,  thou  only  art  the  Lord,"  are  exclusively 
addressed  to  "Christ."  Christ  is  Lord,  but  he  is  so  to 
the  glory  of  God  the  Father,  for  his  regal  authority  being 
subject  to  him,  who  put  all  things  under  him,  must  not 
exclude  the  sovereignty  of  the  three — one  God.  Many 
pious  believers  offer  up  this  "Gloria  in  excelsis"  with 
right  feelings ;  and  God,  we  hope,  accepts  the  hom- 
age ;  we  would  not  cast  a  straw  in  the  way  of  such  ; 
but  truth  is  in  order  to  holiness ;  and  when  we  are 
charged  with  sin  for  not  joining  in  such  worship,  we 
mav  be  permitted  to  show  our  reasons  in  the  fear  of 
God. 

The  Lord's  prayer  is  again  to  be  spoken  by  all.  The 
frequent  repetitions  of  the  pater  noster  were  a  commu- 
tation for  the  ancient  severities  of  penance,  or  so 
many  days  of  fasting,  and  were  received  from  those, 
who  were  not  able  to  buy  off  their  penance  by  alms. 
Every  protestant  rejects,  with  merited  contempt,  not 
only  indulgences,  but  the  more  ancient  discipline  of 
penance.  With  these  things  in  our  view,  and  the  Sa- 
viour's express  prohibition  of  vain  repetitions,  why 
should  we  repeat  again  and  again,  the  same  petitions, 
in  the  same  service?  At  first  this  prayer  was  not  used 
in  public,  then  it  was  not  allowed  to  catechumens,  af- 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  341 

forwards  it  was  used  without  restriction,  and  finally, 
in  the  seventh  century,  a  council  decreed  its  use  on 
every  day  by  the  clergy,  on  pain  of  deposition,  because 
of  the  petition,  "give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread;" 
but  the  word  "  daily"  should  be  "  necessary ; "  the  root 
of  the  original  word  having  been  mistaken. 

"  After  these,"  the  prayer  and  the  collect,  comes  the  re- 
cital of  the  commandments  by  the  minister,  the  am- 
bassador of  God,  from  the  altar,  which  is  always  in  a 
situation  elevated  above  the  body  of  the  church." 
Priesthood,  altars  and  sacrifices  were  types,  and 
having  been  fulfilled,  they  were  taken  away  and  the 
substance  of  all  has  passed  into  the  heavens,  conse- 
quently no  authority  exists  under  the  Gospel  for  any 
of  these  things. 

The  "  commandments"  are  of  the  same  utility,  as 
when  given ;  to  these,  therefore,  we  have  no  objection. 
When  read  from  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  in  the  hearing  of 
the  contiguous  tribes,  the  scene  was  solemn,  by  express 
command,  and  never  repeated.  Where  are  gospel 
ministers  required  to  imitate  this,  and  to  consider 
themselves  authorized  to  personate  the  great  God  in 
reading  his  law?  Their  embassy  is  peace.  We 
have  also  some  objection  to  the  prayer-book  version 
of  these  commandments ;  "  wherefore  the  Lord  blessed 
the  seventh  day"  is  no  part  of  the  fourth  command- 
ment. The  Jews  foisted  the  word  "  seventh"  into  the 
Septuagint  to  enforce  their  seventh-day  worship,  but 
the  Hebrew,  and  the  Samaritan  texts  have  "  sabbath" 
and  not  "  seventh,"  at  that  critical  place,  where  the 
change  perverts  the  whole  commandment ;  the  origi- 
nal design  of  which  was  to  require  one  seventh  of  our 
time,  and  not  the  observance  of  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week.  According  to  the  prayer-book,  the  fourth  com- 
mandment is  repealed,  but  according  to  the  twentieth 
chapter  of  Exodus,  it  binds  the  Christian  to  observe 
the  Lord's  day,  as  much  as  it  did  the  Jews  to  keep  the 
seventh. 

2  e2 


342  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

"  Last  of  all  comes  the  Nicene  creed,  &c."  We 
question  neither  the  propriety,  nor  the  truth  of  the 
creeds,  if  allowed  our  own  interpretation  of  them;  but 
deny  their  authority.  Also  we  doubt  the  propriety  of 
making  them  a  part  of  the  devotions  of  worshipping 
assemblies ;  and  of  requiring  the  common  people  to 
say,  they  contain  their  faith.  If  they  do  not  under- 
stand the  expressions  "  God  of  God,  Light  of  Light, 
very  God  of  very  God,  begotten,  not  made,"  &c.  how 
can  they  believe  them?  Such  language  would  lead 
the  uninstructed  to  the  idea  of  two  Gods.  When  in 
the  council  of  Nice  it  was  objected,  that  the  light, 
which  was  from  the  sun,  was  not  the  sun ;  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  admit,  that  the  idea  of  abcision  must  be  ex- 
cluded. 

After  all,  if  our  brethren  prefer  the  use  of  such 
forms,  they  shall  have  them  without  our  censure; 
but  justice  dictates  the  same  extension  of  charity  to  us. 
Had  the  unknown  but  pious  writer  made  himself  bet- 
ter acquainted  with  our  exceptions  against  written 
forms,  and  with  the  reasons  for  our  mode  of  worship, 
he  would  have  withholden  his  censures,  and  saved  us 
the  painful  necessity  of  parrying  one,  among  the  nu- 
merous attacks  made  upon  us  in  the  Church  Register. 


Number  IX. 


The  tenth  and  eleventh  numbers,  under  this  title, 
in  the  Church  Register,  exhibit  a  second  time  the 
writer's  arguments  in  support  of  the  morning  service. 
Neither  with  that  service  have  we  any  concern,  nor 
with  those  who  use  it,  except  sincerely  to  desire  their 
edification  and  comfort.  To  their  forms  we  have 
neither  right  nor  disposition  to  object ;  it  is  only  be- 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  343 

cause  criminated  for  the  neglect  of  them,  that  we 
complain ;  and  esteem  it  our  duty  to  deny,  that  they 
either  rest  upon  Scriptural  authority,  or  primitive  ex- 
ample. But  on  those  two  points,  we  have  been,  in 
these  numbers,  ingeniously  anticipated.  The  order 
of  the  morning  service  is  pursued,  the  facts  are  dis- 
tinctly named,  a  single  text  of  Scripture  is  given  in 
support  of  the  general  duty  ;  custom  is  then  alleged, 
and  names  of  witnesses  are  given,  but  no  testimony 
is  brought.  The  observations  of  the  writer  follow ;  but 
his  conclusions,  being  without  premises,  preclude  all 
examination.  So  far  as  the  writer  depends  upon  his 
former  representations,  we  offer  nothing  more,  than 
the  answers  already  given.  With  respect  to  his  pre- 
sent positions,  no  issues  having  been  tendered,  no 
proofs  submitted  to  investigation,  no  censures  directly 
inflicted,  and  his  main  object  appearing  to  be  the  pro- 
motion of  piety,  in  which  we  bid  him  God  speed,  little 
is  required  from  us,  though  we  differ  toto  ccelo  from 
many  of  his  views, 


THE    ABSOLUTION. 

"Scripture  authority.  'Whosesoever  sins  ye  remit, 
they  are  remitted.'     St.  John  xx.  23. 

"  Custom.  That  this  was  a  practice  of  the  primitive 
church,  we  learn  from  St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Augustine, 
St.  Cyprian,  and  all  antiquity. 

"  Observation.  The  absolution  is  a  declaration  of 
God's  pardon  to  sinners  upon  their  repentance — pro- 
nounced to  them  by  his  ministers,  &c." 

Peter  received  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven, 
that  is,  authority  to  open  the  gospel,  that  he  might, 
after  the  death  of  Christ,  first  preach  the  glad  tidings 
both  to  Jews  and  Gentiles.  Thus  he  observed,  (Acts 
xv.  7,)  that  "  a  good  while  ago,"  at  the  conversion  of 
Cornelius,  "  God  made  choice  among  us,  that  the  Gen- 
tiles, by  my  mouth,  should  hear  the  word  of  the  gospel, 


344  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

and  believe."  The  authority  of  his  doctrine  is  also 
mentioned,  "whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  on  earth» 
shall  be  bound  in  heaven,  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt 
loose  on  earth,  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven."  The  same 
language  he  afterwards  used  to  all  the  apostles.  The 
terms  binding  and  loosing  were  adopted  by  the  Jews 
for  pronouncing  things  forbidden  or  lawful,  as  has 
been  often  shown ;  accordingly,  both  in  Matthew  xvi. 
19,  and  xviii.  18,  the  neuter  is  used,  because  doctrines, 
not  men,  were  introduced.  Or,  if  in  the  latter,  disci- 
pline be  meant,  it  comes  to  the  same  thing,  for  if  the 
apostle  in  the  exercise  of  it  produced  either  true  re- 
pentance, or  the  opposite  effect,  the  moral  character, 
and  consequently  the  real  state  of  the  party  would  be 
discovered. 

In  like  manner  the  words  in  John  xx.  23,  "  whoseso- 
ever sins  ye  remit,  they  are  remitted  unto  them,  and 
whosesoever  sins  ye  retain,  are  retained,"  are  to  be 
understood.  For  when  they  received  the  inspiration 
of  suggestion,  what  they  thus  uttered  from  him,  whe- 
ther doctrinally  or  judicially,  was  the  wrord  of  God. 

In  respect  to  custom,  we  allege,  that  remission  is 
strictly  of  guilt,  that  is,  of  obligation  to  punishment  ; 
this  is,  to  treat  a  sinner  as  if  he  were  righteous,  or  to 
justify,  in  the  sense  of  the  Scriptures,  which  is  the  act 
of  God  only.  Absolution  by  apostles  was  not  the  ex- 
ercise of  "  power,"  but  the  revelation  either  of  doc- 
trinal truths,  or  of  a  sentence  of  God  discovered  to 
them.  That  any  man,  since  their  deaths,  has  possessed 
this  inspiration  of  suggestion,  we  ought  not  to  believe 
till  it  is  proved.  That  the  early  Christians  had  no  idea 
of  the  forgiveness  of  sins  by  any  mere  man,  is  evinced 
by  the  frequent  use  made  by  the  writers  of  the  first 
centuries,  of  the  fact  of  Christ's  having  forgiven  sin, 
to  prove  his  divinity. 

To  the  observation  of  the  writer  we  can,  in  this  in- 
stance, have  no  objection ;  for,  omitting  the  word 
power,  he  has  rendered  the  absolution  a  mere  "  decla- 
ration."    A  power  in  ministers  to  forgive  sins  is  the 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  345 

obvious  sense  of  the  words  in  the  service,  but  as  this 
is  not  the  view  of  the  writer,  we  are  free  from  impu- 
tation for  not  adopting  it. 


THE    SHORT    PRAYERS    OR    RESPONSES. 

"  Scripture  authority.  i  Continue  in  prayer,'  (or  ac- 
company one  another  without  ceasing  in  prayer.) 
Colossians  iv.  2." 

For  "  continue  in  prayer  and  watch  in  the  same,"  he 
substitutes  "  accompany  one  another  without  ceasing 
in  prayer,"  rightly  omitting  the  and,  and  restoring  the 
participle;  nor  do  we  complain  of  the  changing  of 
the  places  of  the  verb  and  participle  ;  but  the  sense  of 
the  word  translated  "  watchjng"  is  not  "accompany 
one  another."  This  mistake  is  unaccountable,  unless 
the  Greek  word  for  watching,  being  almost  the  same 
with  the  Latin  for  ajlock,  they  have  been  inadvertently 
confounded.  The  Greek  is,  "  continue  in  prayer 
watching  in  it ;"  or,  persevere  in  prayer,  keeping  your 
attention  awake  in  it.  The  word  for  prayer  is  also 
used  for  a  place  of  prayer,  but  not  in  this  passage,  be- 
cause it  is  joined  with  thanksgiving. 

Of  the  thundering  amen,  and  alternate  praises, 
enough  has  been  shown ;  other  responses  were  adopt- 
ed afterwards,  probably  because  of  the  ignorance  of 
the  darker  ages ;  but  that  they  are  duty,  and  necessary 
to  public  prayer,  cannot  be  shown.  Prayer  is  a  speak- 
ing to  God,  and  consequently  excludes,  so  far  as  we 
are  occupied  in  it,  conversation  with  each  other. 


THE    CREED- 

"  Scripture  authority.  '  Hold  fast  the  form  of  sound 
words.'     (2  Tim.  i.  13.) 

"  Custom.  Tertuilian  affirms  the  use  of  creeds  in  all 
churches. 


346  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

"  Observation.  No  wonder  then  that  the  apostolic  in- 
junction should  have  been  adopted  in  all  the  churches.'' 

That  Paul  refers  Timothy  to  any  thing  written* 
either  for  him,  or  the  church  at  Ephesus,  by  the  ex- 
pressions "  hold  fast  the  form  of  sound  zvords,"  we  have 
shown  to  be  excluded  by  the  original  terms,  and  also 
by  the  circumstance,  that  such  truth  was  to  be  retained 
"  in  faith  and  love."  Thus  one  of  the  premises  being 
removed,  the  conclusion  is  without  support. 

When  the  first  churches  were  planted,  they  remain- 
ed under  the  occasional  instructions  of  the  extraordi- 
nary teachers,  till  persons  were  found  qualified  in 
point  of  knowledge  to  teach,  and  of  prudence  to  gov- 
ern the  society.  If  division  arose,  they  were  kept 
without  officers  longer,  as  at  Corinth  and  Rome. 
The  persecution  at  Ephesus  rendered  presbyters  neces- 
sary soon  after  the  departure  of  Paul.  Every  fur- 
nished church  aimed  to  continue  the  same  doctrines 
which  they  had  received  from  the  apostles  and  evan- 
gelists, and  they  afterwards  appealed  to  each  other, 
as  witnesses  of  those  truths,  against  heretical  innova- 
tions ;  but  had  there  existed  a  common  creed,  it  would 
not  have  been  concealed  by  the  early  writers.  The 
letters  of  the  apostles  succeeded  to  the  high  authority 
of  the  writers,  and  were  to  the  churches  better  than 
creeds.  Their  utility  against  heresies  we  admit,  and 
have  shown  their  inception ;  but  hesitate  upon  the 
propriety  of  a  public  recital  of  them  in  worship,  for 
reasons  assigned  in  a  former  number. 


LET    US    PRAY. 

"  Scripture  authority.  '  Exhorting  one  another.'  (Heb. 
x.  25.) 

"  Custom.  The  deacon  in  ancient  services  was  wont, 
to  call  upon  the  people  often,  '  Let  us  pray  vehemently.' 
'  nay,  still  more  vehemently.''  " 

The  propriety  of  a  notice  to  pray,  requires  no  proof, 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  347 

especially  in  the  view  of  those  whose  prayers  are 
written.  '  Let  us  pray  vehemently]  nevertheless,  forms 
some  contrast  with  such  expressions  as  "keep  thy  foot, 
when  thou  goest  into  the  sanctuary ;"  "  let  thy  wrords 
be  few ;"  "  Lord,  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner."  When 
prayers  become  a  task,  and  repetitions  are  made  a 
penance,  devotion  has  ceased.  Importunity  should 
be  the  offspring  of  humility,  and  uttered  with  reve- 
rence and  godly  fear ;  prayer  is  not  the  labor  of  the 
lips,  but  the  breathing  of  a  holy  soul. 

"  The  prayer  for  the  President  and  all  in  authority,"  ac- 
cords with  the  duty  of  every  one,  but  the  duty  extends 
not  to  the  writing  and  reading  of  such  prayer ;  yet  a 
printed  form  might  be  a  protection  to  the  characters  of 
some,  and  a  check  to  the  political  propensities  of 
other  ministers.  Nor  is  this  the  only  instance  in 
which  forms  might  prove  a  relief,  for  the  extempore 
mode  is  liable  to  numerous  abuses.  Some  prayers 
are  grossly  adulatory,  others  give  vent  to  private  re- 
sentments ;  some  are  almost  wholly  doctrinal,  others 
equally  catch  at  the  praises  of  men  by  their  style  or 
manner ;  some  exhibit  the  speaker,  with  a  few  like 
himself,  saints  of  the  highest  order,  possessed  of  full 
assurance,  praying  for  the  sinners  among  the  audience, 
who,  of  course,  are  not  to  join  in  the  prayer ;  whilst 
others  repeat,  like  schoolboys,  moral  sentiments,  pain- 
fully charged  upon  their  memories;  some  describe 
Deity  as  rigorously  just,  without  mercy,  and  others 
appeal  to  general  mercy  only,  giving  encouragement 
even  to  the  impenitent.  That  such  abuses  obtain, 
ought  not  to  be  concealed ;  they  furnish,  nevertheless, 
no  reason  for  our  rejection  of  the  original  mode  of 
public  prayer ;  but  if  any,  for  the  prevention  of  such 
evils,  resort  to  written  forms,  we  are  more  culpable, 
if  it  be  a  fault  to  use  them,  than  they. 

But.  prayers  written  with  care,  and  revised,  may 
still  be  imperfect ;  thus  the  words,  "  We  beseech  thee, 
that  we,  \vith  all  those  that  have  departed  in  the 
true  faith,  may  have  our  perfect  communion,"  &c.  in 


348  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

the  excellent  burial  service,  are  manifestly  a  prayer 
for  the  dead,  but  contrary  to  the  intentions  of  those 
who  use  it. — "  Who  has  knit  together  thine  elect  in 
one  communion  and  fellowship,  in  the  mystical  body 
of  thy  Son,"  &c.  including  all  the  glorified  saints, 
might  not  escape  the  censure  of  being  too  doctrinal, 
if  spoken  by  a  Presbyterian. — "  Bless  and  sanctify 
with  thy  word  and  Holy  Spirit  these  thy  gifts  and 
creatures  of  bread  and  wine" — "  Sanctify  this  water 
to  the  mystical  washing  away  of  sin" — "  Who  hast 
vouchsafed  to  regenerate  these  thy  servants  by  water 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  hast  given  unto  them  for- 
giveness of  all  their  sins" — are  petitions  which  we 
cannot  understand  or  cannot  receive,  and  in  which, 
for  these  reasons,  if  there  were  no  others,  we  ought 
not  to  unite.  Nor  could  we  pray  for  the  "  manifold 
gifts  of  the  apostles,  and  grace  to  use  them,"  because 
the  gifts  have  ceased;  and  if  we  had  them,  they  might 
prove  temptations. 

If  our  prayers  are  at  best  imperfect,  and  if  all  the 
modes  be  subject  to  abuse,  and  the  reasons  for  and 
against  forms  be  numerous  and  various,  it  is  probably 
best,  that  there  should  exist  churches,  differing  in  their 
modes  of  worship,  equally  without  censure:  but,  es- 
pecially, those  who  follow  forms,  have  no  right  to 
justify  themselves  upon  the  grounds  assumed  by  this  zvriter. 
The  experiment  has  evinced  a  total  defect  of  proof, 
that  his  liturgy  is  founded  either  on  commandment,  or 
primitive  practice ;  an  event  which  might  have  been 
foreseen ;  for  others,  with  higher  advantages,  have 
also  failed  in  the  attempt  to  establish  the  same  things. 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  349 


Number  X. 


Whilst  the  pious  writer  under  this  title,  in  the 
Church  Register,  as  well  as  every  other  member  of  the 
respectable  denomination  to  which  he  belongs,  possess- 
es the  unquestionable  right  of  worshipping  in  the  forms 
which  please  themselves,  this  right  should  be  exercised 
with  justice  to  others.  We  make  no  complaint  be- 
cause they  believe  in  the  divine  authority  and  antiquity 
of  their  ritual.  But  when  they  publicly  assert  their 
forms  to  have  been  founded  upon  the  command  of 
God  himself,  and  supported  by  the  examples  of  Christ, 
the  apostles,  and  first  churches;  and  charge  us  with 
guilt,  who  reject  them;  the  matter  of  fact,  that  no 
such  precept  and  examples  have  existed,  is  our  de- 
fence, and  justice  prompts  to   deny  the  charge. 

In  the  morning  service  "the  next  form  of  prayer  to 
be  considered,  is  the  litany,  or  general  supplication." 
The  proofs  marshalled  establish,  what  no  one  doubts, 
the  propriety  of  general  supplications.  Also  that  the 
Greek  word  litany  means  supplication,  is  admitted. 
But  "the  litany"  to  be  supported,  is  a, particular  collec- 
tion of  prayers  distinguished  by  that  name.  Yet  neither 
is  a  word  of  evidence  brought  for  preconceived  forms, 
nor  an  example  given  of  a  dialogue  of  prayers,  like 
this,  in  sixty-three  petitions  and  answers.  But,  instead 
of  a  justification  of  its  subject  matter,  the  writer  has 
given  a  panegyric  on  this  portion  of  the  service. 
"The  litany  begins  with  an  earnest,  and  solemn  invo- 
cation of  each  person  separately  for  mercy."  Here 
are  three  addresses  to  the  divine  persons,  as  to  three 
distinct  beings  ubiquitary,  omniscient  and  able  to  show 
mercy.  The  Scriptures  exhibit  one  divine  being,  one 
object  of  worship,  not  tritheism  ;  a  plurality  indeed  in 
deity  of  some  kind,  which  we  call  personal,  is  essential 
to  the  scheme  of  redemption,  But  this  litany  contains 
2F 


350  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

three  supplications  to  three  distinct  beings,  and  is  the 
worship  of  three  Gods  separately.     The  following  sup- 
plication to  the  "trinity,"  a  word  never  to  be  used  in 
worship,  because  not  in  the  Scriptures,  will  not  remove 
the  objection.     This  word,  taken  to  mean  three  and 
one  in  different  respects,  although  it  be  not  its  natural 
force,  is  the  best  we  can  frame.     But  we  are  not  able 
to   discern,  why  the  very  same  petition  for  mercy 
should  be  first  offered  to  each  person  individually,  and 
then  to  the  "trinity"  as  such,  unless  it  be  under  the  per- 
suasion, that  there  are  three  beings,  who  think  and  act 
sometimes  severally  and  sometimes  conjunctly.     We 
are  taught  to  pray  to  the  Father  as  God,  asking  for 
the  sake  of  Christ,  under  the  sanctifying  influences  of 
the  Spirit ;  we  know  of  no  other  way  prescribed  in 
the  sacred  word.      The  residue  of  the  litany,  about 
five-sixths  of  the  whole,  is  directed  to  the  Mediator 
and  Son,  and  is  consequently  a  plain  departure  from 
His  own  direction  to   ask  the  P'ather  in   His  name. 
Stephen  and  Ananias  had  visions  of  Christ,  and  ad- 
dressed him.     The  worship  of  Christ  by  the  church  in 
heaven  and  on  earth,  was  also  a  vision.      Doxologies 
and  benedictions  naming  the  persons  together  as  one 
God  and  thus  calling  upon  the  name  of  Jesus  are  obvi- 
ously proper.     The  addresses  of  Polycarp  in  his  letter, 
and  at  the  stake,  were  also  to  one  God,  though  the 
Father  and  Son  are  named.     The  letter  of  the  church 
of  Smyrna  speaks  of  him  as  an  object  of  worship, 
being  the  Son  of  God.     Justin  Martyr  told  the  Emperor 
in  behalf  of  the  Christians,  "we  worship  God  alone." — 
That  the  orthodox  Christians,  before  the  Arian  heresy 
every  where  held  the  divinity  of  the  Son,  and  called 
upon  his  name  with  the  Father  is  undeniably  true.  But 
that  they  offered  distinct  petitions  and" prayers  to  the 
Mediator,  we  have  never  found.     Praises  for  the  work 
of  each  in  redemption  are  not  liable  to  the  same  objec- 
tions ;  ye|  those  of  which  Pliny  speaks,  could  not  be 
justified,  if  they  were  directed  to  the  man  Jesus  "as 
God"  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Father  and  the  Spirit ; 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  351 

but  that  testimony  was  evidently  mere  hearsay,  and 
furnished  by  one  wholly  ignorant  of  Christianity. 

This  is  "a  recognition  of  the  blessed  Trinity." 
True ;  but  though  our  belief  and  our  worship  be  inse- 
parable, we  ought  not  by  using  unscriptural  forms  and 
language  in  our  public  worship,  to  place  stumbling 
blocks  in  the  way  of  the  weak.  Such  a  litany  instead 
of  preventing,  may  produce  unitarianism. 

It  carefully  recognises  also  three  orders,  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons;  but  of  priests  as  officers  in 
Christ's  church,  distinct  from  bishops,  no  one  ever  read 
a  word  in  the  JNew  Testament.  Considered  as  a  hu- 
man institution,  we  ought  to  be  convinced,  that  it  was 
rightfully  introduced,  before  we  venture  to  offer  it  in 
prayer  to  Him  who  claims  the  prerogative  of  legislat- 
ing for  his  own  church. 

Next  is  introduced  the  "prayer  or  collect  taken  from 
the  liturgy  of  Saint  Chrysostom,  and  is  therefore  very 
ancient."  This  prayer  appearing  in  the  morning  and 
evening  service,  and  in  the  litany  must  be  a  favorite. 
This  writer,  known  during  his  life  by  the  name  of  John, 
whose  dignity  was  according  to  that  of  the  city  of 
Constantinople,  being  their  bishop,  was  born  in  the 
fourth  and  died  in  the  fifth  century,  and  long  after  his 
banishment  and  death  was  canonized,  an  honor  if  such 
it  be,  withholden  from  many  whom  God  had  inspired. 
As  the  denomination  do  not  acknowledge  this  power 
in  the  Pope,  we  know  not  why  it  should  be  so  often 
admitted  in  the  saintships  of  the  prayer-book ;  and  are 
sorry  to  perceive  this  contagion  spreading  among  our 
own,  caught  from  the  English  Testament;  we  shall 
better  know  who  have  been  saints,  when  the  sentence 
of  the  final  judge  shall  decide  the  question.  We  find 
days  assigned  to  St.  James,  St.  Peter  and  others ;  and 
also  to  "St.  Michael  and  all  angels,"  except  we  presume 
those  who  have  fallen.  But  why  angels  should  be 
called  saints,  and  since  we  protestants  neither  worship 
them,  nor  ask  their  help,  why  they  should  continue  to 
have  a  place  among  our  devotions,  are  things  to  us 


352  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

not  very  clear.  As  we  neither  worship  Chrysostom, 
nor  acknowledge  his  authority,  especially  in  praying 
for  the  dead ;  nor  esteem  a  prayer  the  more,  because 
made  by  him,  and  no  better  than  others,  there  seems 
to  be  no  reason  for  honoring  him  with  the  name  of  a 
golden  mouth  in  a  protestant  prayer-book.  A  "collect 
taken  from  the  liturgy  of  Chrysostom'?"  There  is  no 
liturgy  of  Chrysostom;  that  which  bears  his  name  was 
not  his.  On  this  very  account  the  learned  Bingham 
went  through  the  tomes  of  Chrysostom  in  search  of 
vestiges  of  a  liturgy.  He  found  the  Lord's  prayer, 
the  evangelical  hymn,  the  words  of  institution  of  the 
two  sacraments,  the  salutation  and  the  benediction. 
He  has  turned  the  exhortations  of  the  deacons  into 
what  he  calls  bidding  prayers;  but  they  are  not  prayers, 
for  they  are  spoken  to  the  worshippers,  not  addressed 
to  Deity,  who  is  spoken  of  in  the  third  person.  His 
proofs  taken  in  their  connexions  respectively,  from  the 
Greek  homilies  of  Chrysostom,  establish  not  the  use  of 
a  liturgy  at  Constantinople  at  that  period.  But  if  they 
had  gone  so  far,  that  fact  at  so  late  a  period  would  not 
have  furnished  the  least  authority  for  a  precomposed 
liturgy. 

The  unknown  writer  next  presents  to  us  the  canoni- 
cal year,  commencing  with  "the  advent,"  and  with  de- 
votional pathos  describes  the  progress  of  his  ritual  in 
the  nativity,  circumcision,  epiphany,  lent,  good  Friday, 
Easter,  ascension,  and  whitsuntide:  thus  making  the 
whole  year  a  succession  of  anniversaries  of  the  events 
of  gospel  history.  Though  it  wras  a  happy  substitution 
for  pagan  observances,  the  occasion  has  long  ceased, 
and  of  these  numerous  feasts,  fasts,  and  holy  days,  the 
posing  question  now  occurs,  "who  hath  required  these 
at  our  hands?"  Certainly  God  hath  not,  and  no  other 
hath  a  right.  But  self-defence  is  our  only  aim,  we  wil- 
lingly leave  others  to  their  own  convictions. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  supper  as  explained  in 
the  twenty-eighth  article,  as  well  as  in  our  Confession 
and  catechism,  follows  loo  nearly  Calvin's  trimming 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  353 

unintelligible  scheme  of  eating  and  drinking  spiritually. 
In  the  edition  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  sixth,  it  is 
rightly  expressed ;  that,  "  the  body  of  Christ  cannot  be 
present  at  one  time,  in  many  and  divers  places."  The 
bread  and  wine  remain  unaltered  by  prayer,  and  can 
never  produce  any  new  physical  effect,  nor  operate  as  a 
charm;  they  may  become  signs  and  seals.  The  article 
rightly  affirms,  that,  "  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
supper  was  not  by  Christ's  ordinance  reserved,  carried 
about,  lifted  up  and  worshipped."  But  the  commu- 
nion service,  though  it  does  not  affirm  a  change  of  the 
substance  of  the  bread  and  wine,  yet  contains  a  con- 
secration of  them,  by  which  they  are  blessed  and 
sanctified  in  such  a  sense,  that  if  more  bread  and 
wine  be  necessary,  the  consecration  must  be  repeated, 
and  if  there  be  a  surplus,  the  "minister  shall  return  to 
the  Lord's  table,  and  reverently  place  upon  it  what  re- 
maineth  of  the  consecrated  elements,  covering  the 
same  with  a  fair  linen  cloth  ;"  and  "  it  shall  not  be  car- 
ried out  of  the  church,  but  the  minister  and  other 
communicants  shall  immediately  after  the  blessing, 
reverently  eat  and  drink  the  same."  These  things  were 
probably  designed  to  prevent  superstition,  yet  seem 
to  imply  some  effect  wrought  upon  the  elements, 
which  is  wholly  incomprehensible. 

He  argues  for  commencing  the  communion  with 
the  Lord's  prayer  from  "  the  propriety  of  engaging" 
God's  favor  with  this  prayer,  which  his  own  beloved 
Son  gave  us  as  a  never  failing  spring  of  grace  and 
help.  Where  such  views  exist,  the  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  that  prayer  is  as  excusable,  as  if  it  were  be- 
lieved, that  the  repetition  of  it  a  number  of  times 
merits  the  greatest  blessings.  This  is  to  waive  the 
necessity  of  faith,  and  of  that  grace,  which  produces 
it;  and  to  treat  the  perfect,  and  therefore  immutable 
God,  as  a  subject  of  motives.  That  Christ  gave  that 
prayer,  "  as  a  never  failing  spring  of  grace  and  help," 
is  neither  fact  nor  sound  doctrine.  That  the  commu- 
nion service,  at  an  early  period,  should  commence 
2  f2 


354  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

with  that  prayer  is  very  natural ;  for  public  worship 
began  with  reading  the  scriptures;  next  followed  a 
homily,  exhortation,  or  discourse;  the  deacons  then 
dictated  petitions  to  the  catechumens  and  penitents, 
and  immediately  after  imposition  of  hands  on  the  peni- 
tents excluded  them,  because  deemed  unfit  to  say, 
"Our  father,"  &c.  Silent  devotions  succeeded,  followed 
by  a  public  prayer  ;  in  which  the  Lord's  prayer,  being 
generally  known,  would  first  occur,  as  the  privilege 
of  those  present,  then  followed  the  communion.  The 
nineteenth  canon  of  the  provincial  council  of  Laodicea 
may  be  taken  as  the  course  of  worship,  in  use  at 
least  in  Asia  Minor,  after  Justyn  Martyr,  and  prior  to 
the  council  of  Nice;  but  it  neither  mentions  a  public 
liturgy,  nor  affords  a  proof  of  written  forms. 


Number  XI. 


Several  things  in  the  fourteenth  number  of  this  title 
in  the  Church  Register,  appear  exceptionable,  but  our 
object  is  neither  censure  nor  criticism,  but  merely  de- 
fence of  truth.  When  the  writer  asks,  "  May  we  not 
then  justly  admire  such  arrangement,  and  be  encou- 
raged with  the  fact,  that  we  worship  the  Lord  in  the 
beauty  of  holiness  ?"  the  use  of  the  liturgy  in  public 
worship,  seems  to  be  identified  with  the  beauty  of  holi- 
ness: yet  the  110th  Psalm  was  not  prophetic  of  pre- 
conceived forms,  but  of  the  spiritual  worship  of  gos- 
pel times. 

"  May  we  not  then  say  of  the  church  service  that 
it  is  at  unity  with  itself?"  As  the  service  here  spoken 
of  belongs  to  "the  church,"  there  is  no  other.  This 
exclusive  claim  unchurches  every  other  denomination  ; 
and  those  who  make  it,  are  at  unity  with  themselves, 


LITURGICAL   CONSIDERATIONS.  355 

when   they  refuse    every    evangelical  coalition   and 
act,  correspondent  unto  every  effort  of  the  day.  some- 
thing of  a  kindred  nature,  that  the  church  may  retain 
its  integrity  without  danger  of  commixtures ;  but  for 
what  ulterior  purpose,  we  are  unable  to  discover.     If 
all  others  be  out  of  covenant,  it  is  strange  that  any 
thing  good  should  originate  with  them,  and  be  found 
worthy  of  imitation.     The  last  number  of  the  Church 
Register  admits  this  representation,  by  publishing  as 
true,  though  from  a  Presbyterian,  "  that  the  evangeli- 
cal party"  in  England,  "  are  more  rigid  in  their  pecu- 
liar notions  of  church  government,  and  more  disposed 
to  talk  of  Episcopalians  as  the  church  than  the  anti- 
evangelical."     Of  this  matter  we   profess   to    know 
nothing,  except  that  whilst  the  Philadelphia  Recorder 
has  treated  us  as  fellow  Christians,  the  Church  Regis- 
ter has,  from  its  commencement,  in  alternate  strains 
of  transatlantic   superciliousness,  and   querulousness 
against  evangelical  men  and  measures,  spoken  against 
Presbyterians   and   "  evangelical"   Episcopalians,    in 
terms  which  cannot  fail  to  rouse  to  self-defence.  Thus, 
without  ceremony,  in  one  of  his  last  numbers,  he  cha- 
racterises "  Presbyterianism"  by  what  he  represents  it 
to  be  "  in  Canada ;"  where  there  are  those  "  who  neg- 
lect baptism,  rather  than  have  that  rite  performed  by 
an  Englishman  in  holy  orders."     "  Presbyterianism  in 
Canada"  still  groans  under  the  intolerance  of  "  the 
church,"  whilst  conscience,  as  in  every  former  age, 
refuses  to  yield  to    compulsion.     "  Presbyterianism" 
every  where  admits  the  validity  of  Episcopal  baptism; 
but  no  where  approves  the  papal  appendages  attached 
to  it  in  the  pi*ayer-book.     Suppose  a  bigoted  Cana- 
dian, present  in  Philadelphia,  should  answer  the  editor 
by  alleging,  that  he  had  heard  his  pastor  in  Scotland 
say,  that  to  require  sponsors  to  affirm  in  the  name  of 
the  child,  that  it  believes  and  promises,  when  it  is 
physically  incapable  of  both;  to  consecrate  the  wa- 
ter; to  mark  the  forehead  with  it  transversely  as  a 
cross ;  and  to  have  a  bishop  to  finish  by  confirmation, 
assuming  the  apostolic  extraordinary  power  of  the 


356  LITURGICAL   CONSIDERATIONS. 

gift  of  the  Spirit,  what  the  presbyter  had  begun  byre- 
moving  sin  by  baptism,  are  all  human  inventions,  and 
on  that  account  to  be  rejected ;  what  would  the  editor, 
who  is  "in  holy  orders,"  reply?  The  justice  of  the 
imputation  cast  upon  the  Canadian,  must  depend  upon 
the  truth  and  weight  of  his  answers. 

No  doubt  he  would  say,  that  so  long  ago  as  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fifth  century,  the  bishop  of  Hippo  al- 
leged in  defence  of  this  practice  "  that  sacraments 
would  not  be  such,  if  they  bore  not  the  similitude  of 
the  things  of  which  they  are  sacraments" — "  as  the 
sacrament  of  the  body  of  Christ  is  in  some  manner  his 
body,  so  the  sacrament  of  faith  is  faith,  therefore  to 
answer  that  an  infant  believes,  who  is  incapable  of 
believing,  is  to  answer  that  he  has  faith,  because  he 
receives  the  sacrament  of  faith."  But  the  false  an- 
swer must  be  given  before  the  child  is  baptized,  for  it 
constitutes,  by  its  terms,  the  condition  upon  which  the 
child  receives  baptism ;  otherwise,  if  nothing  but  the 
effect  of  baptism  is  meant  according  to  Augustine,  the 
question  is  useless  and  absurd.  But  the  right  of  in- 
fants to  baptism,  whose  parents  are  in  covenant,  de- 
pends neither  upon  stipulations  in  behalf  of  the  infant, 
nor  upon  the  faith  either  of  the  parent  cr  child,  or 
even  of  the  administrator  of  the  ordinance,  but  upon 
the  will  of  God ;  for  in  the  Old  Testament  he  has  ex- 
pressly given  them  the  right,  which  has  never  been 
taken  away ;  and  in  the  New,  has  pronounced  them 
holy  or  set  apart  to  himself,  in  cases  where  they  would 
have  been  excluded  by  the  customs  of  the  Jews. 

The  editor  might  also  say  to  the  second  objection, 
that  the  consecration  of  the  water  by  prayer,  the 
Holy  Spirit  being  supposed  to  descend  from  heaven 
upon  it,  may  be  found  to  have  been  believed  at  the 
commencement  of  the  third  century.  Afterwards  in 
the  consecration,  the  water  was  sapiently  marked 
with  the  sign  of  the  cross  ;  and  in  the  days  of  Augus- 
tine, the  blood  of  Christ  was  supposed  present  with 
the  water,  as  in  the  eucharist. 

With  respect  to  the  sign  of  the  cross,  he  might  re- 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  357 

ply,  that  in  early  days,  the  persecuted  Christians  sig- 
nified their  profession  to  each  other  by  secretly  cross- 
ing themselves.  That  this  had  been  added  to  baptism 
before  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  is  shown  by 
Cyprian;  and  that  it  was  in  constant  use  afterwards, 
by  Augustine,  Jerom,  and  others. 

With  respect  to  confirmation,  he  could  say,  that  at 
the  commencement  of  the  third  century,  when  a  per- 
son was  baptized,  unction,  imposition  of  the  hands  of 
the  presbyter,  with  prayer  for  the  Spirit,  immediately 
followed.  But  when  the  presiding  presbyter  had  ob- 
tained a  canonical  ordination,  a  monopoly  of  the  title 
of  bishop,  and  a  control  in  almost  every  thing,  he  also 
assumed  the  right  of  imposition  of  hands  and  chrysm, 
with  prayer  for  the  Spirit,  confirming  the  baptisms  of 
the  presbyters.  Thus  Jerom  speaks  of  the  custom  of  the 
bishop's  imposing  his  hands,  and  of  invoking  the  Holy 
Spirit  upon  those,  whom  presbyters  and  deacons  had 
baptized.  Also,  that  it  was  decreed  by  a  council,  that 
infants  were  not  to  be  confirmed,  except  by  the  bishop, 
or  by  his  direction.  Baptism  being  thus  severed  from 
the  anointing,  or  in  the  Latin  church,  imposition  of 
hands  denominated  confirmation,  each  was  by  a  coun- 
cil of  Carthage  termed  a  sacrament  or  mystery.  It 
was  not,  however,  till  the  eighth  or  ninth  century,  that 
confirmation  was  withholden  from  infants  as  soon  as 
baptized.  And  that  on  these  grounds,  at  present,  con- 
firmation is  a  distinct  rite,  peculiar  to  the  canonical 
bishop. 

To  all  these  things,  the  despised  Canadian  Presby- 
terian might  rejoin,  that  they  arose  since  the  apostles' 
days,  and  were  human  contrivances. — That  confirma- 
tion, so  far  as  an  aping  the  extraordinary  powers  of 
the  apostles,  was  absurd,  and  that  the  church  had 
neither  power  to  decree  a  canonical  ordination,  nor 
to  introduce  a  new  sacrament. 

Why  should  "  Presbyterianism  in  Canada"  be  held 
up  to  censure  for  that  self-preference,  which  is  a  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  "  the  church"  in  Phila- 


358  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

delphia?  The  hardy  peasant  of  the  north  had  the 
same  right  still  to  "  love  the  church  of  Scotland,"  and 
to  "  carry  his  children  forty  miles  over  the  snow"  for 
baptism,  as  the  editor  of  the  Church  Register  had  to 
lumber  the  mails  in  every  direction  with  his  preference 
of  "  the  church  service  above  all  others."  Such  pre- 
dilections for  either  of  these  denominations  are  of  no 
importance,  except  as  they  may,  by  affecting  the  con- 
science, become  injurious.  The  only  probable  mean 
of  removing  them  is  the  calm  investigation  of  the  truth 
which  ought  to  and  will  prevail,  when  the  names  and 
distinctions  about  which  the  potsherds  of  the  earth  are 
striving,  shall  have  drooped  into  merited  and  eternal 
oblivion. 


Number  XII. 


Another  transatlantic  writer  is  introduced  by  the 
Church  Register,  in  support  of  the  same  cause,  to 
whom,  because  of  his  dignity,  we  seem  bound  to  pay 
our  respects.  He  asks,  "with  what  feelings  of  confi- 
dence can  a  congregation  have  recourse  to  prayer, 
which  has  been  accustomed  to  hear,  that  a  decree  has 
already,  before  the  foundation  of  the  world,  gone  out 
from  God,  by  which  the  final  destiny  of  every  man  is 
irrevocably  doomed,  and  indeed  that  such  is  the  ne- 
cessary consequence  of  the  undeniable  foreknowledge 
of  Deity?"  "The  real  conclusion,  and  the  practical 
evil  of  the  doctrine  of  the  election  meet  together." 
These  sentiments,  being  not  more  an  imputation  on 
those,  who  teach  according  to  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession, than  those  who  have  adopted  the  articles  con- 
tained in  the  prayer-book  impose  no  necessity  of  self- 
vindication  upon  us,  that  does  not  equally  fall  upon  the 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  359 

orthodox  of  his  own  church ;  nevertheless  their  con- 
nexion with  that  which  follows  them  precludes  our  to- 
tal silence. 

If  the  object  of  worship  does  not  know  future  things 
and  actions,  he  must  be  growing  wiser  progressively, 
is  consequently  imperfect,  and,  by  the  voice  of  reason 
and  revelation,  not  God.  But  if  perfect,  his  know- 
ledge, which  must  be  therefore  perfect,  is  also  in  other 
respects  wholly  unlike  that  of  his  creatures.  Our 
ideas  originate  from  things,  and  imply  their  previous 
existence ;  but  things  all  spring  from  the  great  first 
cause,  and  are  the  effects  of  his  power  accomplishing 
his  previous  purposes;  the  divinejvnowledge  thus  wholly 
differs  from  human,  ours  consisting  of  the  pictures- of 
things,  whilst  things  are  the  images  of  his  knowledge, 
and  nature,  grace  and  glory  constitute  a  stupendous 
scheme  present  in  all  its  parts  to  the  divine  mind  in 
his  eternal  purposes.  The  decrees  of  God  are  not 
acts,  but  such  purposes,  and  immutable  like  himself, 
because  founded  in  wisdom  which  is  perfect. 

But  it  is  complained  that  thus  "the  f nal  destiny  of 
every  man  is  doomed.''''  Infinite  knowledge  sees  the  end 
From  the  beginning,  and  it  sees  also  every  mean  that 
conduces  to  the  end.  With  respect  to  men,  it  discerns 
all  the  iniquity,  which  is  to  bring  the  final  doom  or  con- 
demnation upon  the  impenitent.  When  this  shall  be 
revealed  to  all  at  the  judgment,  every  rational  crea- 
ture will  see  and  approve ;  and  if  it  shall  be  then 
right  to  condemn  the  reprobate,  it  could  not  have  been 
wrong  to  have  purposed  from  eternity  to  do  that, 
which  shall  then  be  seen  to  have  been  just. 

That  the  eloquent  bishop,  from  whom  the  excerpt  is 
taken,  should  pronounce  "the  doctrine  of  election,, — "a 
practical  evil,"  whilst  the  seventeenth  arlicle  of  his 
church  declares  it  to  be  "full  of  sweet,  pleasant  and 
unspeakable  comfort,"  is  somewhat  s' range.  The 
framers  of  the  articles  saw  no  relief  for  the  guilty, 
but  in  the  sovereignty  of  God ;  whilst  the  prelate  has 
either  a  higher  opinion  of  human  rectitude,  or  ima- 


360  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

gines  the  moral  governor  less  scrupulous  of  his  honor. 
But  that  God  has  given  laws,  and  appointed  a  judg- 
ment ;  that  he  will  sustain  the  honor  of  his  rectitude, 
neither  making  any  to  account  for  what  they  did  not 
receive,  nor  punishing  any  but  for  their  sins ;  and  that 
every  man  possessed  of  the  ordinary  natural  faculties 
of  a  man,  is  conscious  of  a  freedom  from  constraint 
and  restraint,  are  indisputable  facts.  But  if  the  govern- 
ment he  has  erected  be  perfect,  and  the  contrary  is  an 
unworthy  supposition,  there  can  be  no  reason  for  the 
pardon  of  sin  to  prevent  a  failure  of  justice;  accordingly 
what  is  so  called  is  really  a  justification,  for  which 
provision  has  been  secured  by  the  Sovereign  of  the 
Universe  in  the  original  constitution,  that  is,  in  the 
eternal  purposes,  on  which  the  government  is  founded. 
Why  then  should  the  bishop  of  Winchester  take  away 
our  only  hope?  In  other  words,  why  should  he  con- 
ceal the  sovereignty  of  God,  in  which  high  but  rightful 
character  only  he  could  have  purposed  the  erection  of 
his  moral  government,  the  scheme  of  redemption,  and 
the  salvation  of  fallen  men,  and  upon  what  terms 
he  pleases.  On  him  as  sovereign  there  can  be  no 
claims,  for  he  is  wholly  independent,  yet  in  this  char- 
acter alone  can  we  approach  him  in  the  attitude  of 
prayer ;  whilst  we  know  that  in  his  gifts  of  grace  and 
glory,  as  well  as  in  those  of  his  providence,  he  may 
do  with  his  own  as  he  pleases ;  and  have  his  word  that 
when  we  are  fit  to  receive,  he  is  ready  to  give,  for 
that  every  one  who  asketh  receiveth.  The  seventeenth 
article  must  have  been  written  under  a  full  view  of 
such  truths. 

But  if  a  decree  lias  gone  forth  before,  there  can  be  no  con- 
fidence in  prayer.  There  would  be  no  just  ground  of 
confidence,  if  there  existed  no  connexion  between 
means  and  end;  if  all  was  uncertain;  if  an  imperfect 
and  mutable  being  guided  the  universe,  liable  to  be 
swerved  by  a  thousand  petitions  hourly  addressed  to 
him,  ready  to  subject  the  dictates  of  wisdom  and  the 
demands  of  justice  to  the  importunities   of  the  selfish, 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  361 

and  ever  disposed  to  surrender  the  public  good  to  pri- 
vate advantage.  The  decrees  of  God  are  not  reveal- 
ed to  us,  and  can  be  no  rule  of  our  conduct,  either  in 
matter  of  providence  or  grace.  If  we  pray  in  faith, 
he  has  thereby  given  us  a  pledge ;  but  if  we  have  not 
faith,  our  duty  to  confide  is  not  the  less,  because  suc- 
cess is  not  promised.  The  purposes  of  God  include 
the  means  as  well  as  the  end,  consequently  either  is  as 
sure  as  the  other.  The  same  objection  lies  with  re- 
spect to  the  gifts  of  providence  ;  in  ploughing  and 
sowing  and  every  other  work  the  success  ever  depends 
upon  him,  without  whom  a  sparrow  descends  not  to 
the  ground.  If  the  confidence,  which  is  destroyed  by 
the  idea  of  a  perfect  government,  consists  in  a  depen- 
dence upon  the  excellence  of  our  prayers,  the  purity 
of  our  desires,  or  the  merit  of  our  services,  it  is  best 
that  it  should  be  destroyed.  That  confidence  of  a 
worshipper,  which  is  taken  away  by  a  belief  in  the 
immutability  of  the  divine  purposes,  which  are  always 
right,  is  a  false  hope  resting  upon  some  imaginary 
previous  failure  on  the  part  of  the  divine  vigilance  or 
purity.  Tt  is  an  astonishing  fact,  that  Dr.  Sumner  pre- 
fers to  worship  a  God,  whom  he  can  change  by  his 
prayers  ;  yet  such  change  must  be  either  for  the  bet- 
ter or  the  worse ;  if  for  the  better,  he  chooses  to  wor- 
ship an  imperfect  God;  if  for  the  worse,  we  dread  to 
speak  the  consequences.  There  is  no  other  alterna- 
tive, for  a'  change,  neither  for  the  better  nor  the  worse, 
would  argue  defect  of  wisdom.  This  view  of  prayer 
we  should  not  expect  from  a  bishop  of  Winchester. 
Protestants  address  one  who  knows  them  altogether, 
their  ways,  and  thoughts,  and  destinies.  We  do  not 
pray  to  inform  our  Maker  of  that  which  he  knew  not ; 
nor  wish  to  change  him,  who  is  perfectly  wise,  and 
always  does  what  is  best.  We  desire  to  fall  in  with 
his  purposes,  submit  to  his  will,  acknowledge  his  gov- 
ernment, and  bring  our  hearts  into  unison  with  the 
dispensations  of  his  providence  and  grace.  To  ex- 
pect to  reveal  to  omniscience,  what  he  knows  not;  to 
2G 


362  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

desire  to  change  purposes,  which  are  the  wisest  and  the 
best,  and  therefore  immutable;  and  to  conceive  of  the 
eternal  Sovereign,  as  if  he  were  a  frail  mortal  are 
mental  exercises  the  reverse  of  moral  purity  as  well 
as  correct  theology;  and  have  a  direct  tendency  to 
destroy,  rather  than  to  establish  confidence  in  Chris- 
tian devotions. 

It  is  also  the  opinion  of  this  bishop  of  bishops,  that 
a  congregation  should  not  customarily  hear  of  decrees. 
But  if  God  possesses  perfect  wisdom,  and  all  his  ac- 
tions accord  with  purposes  of  such  character;  if  his 
power  effectuates  his  designs  and  he  always  sees  the 
end  from  the  beginning;  if  every  prophecy  is  a  reve- 
lation of  his  purpose,  of  his  foreknowledge,  and  of  the 
consequent  certainty  of  the  accomplishment,  there  can 
be  no  reason  for  the  concealment  of  such  perfections. 
Yet  if  these  be  erroneous  representations,  and  if  there 
be  neither  purpose,  knowledge,  power,  nor  other  per- 
fection ;  nor  any  certainty,  then  ought  they  neither  to 
be  heard  nor  uttered.  It  would  then  also  iollow,  that 
there  is  no  God,  and  that  atheism,  being  truth,  should 
become  the  order  of  the  day.  Such  tremendous  con- 
clusions neither  can  Dr.  Sumner,  nor  the  editor  escape. 
They  suppose  Presbyterians  to  believe,  that  God  has 
arbitrarily  and  irreversibly  determined,  that  men  shall 
or  shall  not  be  saved  without  any  respect  to  their  faith 
or  obedience;  but  we  abhor  such  a  doctrine  as  much 
as  they  can;  and  hold  that  whenever  a  man  has  been 
elected  to  salvation,  such  salvation  can  only  be  attain- 
ed in  a  way  of  holiness;  and  that  when  a  man  is  ap- 
pointed to  destruction,  he  cannot  be  lost,  but  by  his 
sins.  Even  Christ's  exaltation,  which  they  will  ac- 
knowledge was  absolutely  decreed,  could  not  have  ob- 
tained, unless  he  had  performed  the  terms  upon  which 
it  was  suspended.  The  assistance,  which  his  human 
nature  received  from  the  divine,  does  not  alter  the 
case;  because  it  was  but  a  mean,  and  also  decreed 
In  a  similar  manner  an  absolute  purpose,  called  a  de- 
cree of  election  to  glory,  may  comprehend  at  the  same 
time  events  depending  on  voluntary  agency,  and  those 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATION'S.  363 

spiritual  aids,  which  shall  secure  the  repentance,  faith, 
and  holiness,  without  which  the  party  could  not  be 
saved.  When  these  duties  are  not  performed  the 
party  may  blame  himself,  and  justly  perish  in  his  sins; 
there  being  in  him  no  defect  of  power,  but  only  of  dis- 
position, spiritual  aid  denominated  grace  would  be  a 
mere  gift  not  debt,  an  act  of  sovereignty  not  justice, 
since  the  party  was  not  forced  to  sin.  Though  it  is 
thus  undeniable,  that  events  may  be  absolutely  decreed,  and 
be  therefore  certain,  zvhich  depend  on  the  intervening  conduct 
of  moral  agents,  zvho  are  free;  yet  is  there  a  portion  of 
our  fellow  Christians,  who  would  limit  the  perfections 
of  God  himself,  rather  than  admit,  that  predestination 
and  election,  though  implying  no  more  than  the  cer- 
tainly of  divine  purposes,  can  be  reconciled  with  the  pos- 
session of  the  liberty  necessary  to  moral  agency. 

That  the  most  precious  doctrines  may  be  abused 
and  thus  become  practical  evils,  and  that  this  of  elec- 
tion has  been  often  perverted  to  the  hardening  of  re- 
probate minds,  is  matter  of  lamentation.  But  instead 
of  denying  the  perfections  of  God,  and  his  rightful 
sovereignty  we  ought  to  discriminate  between  this  and 
his  rectoral  government;  and  while  we  point  out  with 
clearness,  the  natural  powers  and  liberty  we  possess 
as  moral  agents,  and  for  the  right  use  of  which  we 
are,  and  ought  to  account,  it  becomes  us  to  acknowledge 
our  guilty  alienation,  and  aversation  of  heart,  which 
some  call  a  moral  inability,  and  our  need  of  these 
sanctifying  influences,  without  which  we  shall  go  on  in 
sin,  and  fall  under  the  deserved  sentence  of  final  con- 
demnation. But  as  often  as  men  can  be  brought  to 
pray  for  such  aid  with  the  heart,  and  right  views,  they 
are  the  subjects  of  the  grace  they  ask. 

As  God  is  perfect,  he  can  have  no  accession  of 
knowledge,  or  change  of  purposes ;  what  he  does,  he 
does,  for  ever;  nor  can  he  be  at  a  loss  to  accomplish 
his  designs,  for  all  things  are  his,  and  under  his  direc- 
tion, and  every  heart  at  his  disposal.  Nothing  there- 
fore can  be  more  unreasonable,  than  to  suppose, 
that  the  infallible  certainty  of  an  event  excludes  the 


364  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

very  means  which  are  appointed  by  God  himself  to 
render  such  event  finally  sure. 

All  good,  and  all  evil  that  is  physical,  are  from  God: 
but  moral  evil  is  a  negative  idea,  and  requires  no  pos- 
sitive  cause.  To  bestow  good  implies  a  purpose,  and 
the  Scriptures  call  it  when  the  good  is  future  an  elec- 
tion. As  a  mean  of  saving  a  guilty  world  redemp- 
tion has  been  provided,  and  is  offered  to  all  even  the 
worst.  If  any  were  hindered  and  repelled,  the  positive 
refusal  might  be  ground  of  complaint.  If  non-elec- 
tion be  a  decree,  it  is  a  decree  not  to  decree,  which  is  a 
negative  idea,  and  not  an  act:  nor  is  the  permission  of 
sin  a  decree,  for  to  permit  is  not  to  hinder,  and  a  mere 
negation.  No  excluding  decrees  exist,  nor  are  they 
implied  in  election.  The  purpose  to  punish  those,  who 
deserve  to  suffer  for  their  sins,  is  as  just  as  to  do  the 
thing,  when  the  trial  has  been  passed.  This  is  all  the 
reprobation  we  hold;  and  these  truths,  we  think,  ought 
to  be  heard  by  every  congregation,  and  if  they  become 
practical  evils,  upon  them  rests  the  blame,  who  abuse 
them. 


Number  XIII. 

Babtismal  regeneration  is  the  subject,  presented  by 
the  excerpts  in  the  Church  Register,  for  our  present 
reflections. 

Those  apostolic  addresses,  in  which  whole  churches 
are  denominated  members  of  Christ,  buried  rcith  him  in 
baptism,  the  spiritual  circumcision,  and  temples  of  the  Hohj 
Ghost,  are  alleged  by  Dr.  Sumner  to  have  been 
"  founded  on  the  principle  that  the  disciples  had  been 
brought,  by  their  dedication  to  God  in  baptism,  into  a 
state  of  reconcilement  with  him,  had  been  admitted  to 
privileges  which  the  gospel  calls  on  them  to  improve. 
On  the  authority  of  the  example,  and  of  the  undeniable 
practice  of  the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  our  church 
considers  baptism  as  conveying  regeneration"     And  af- 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  365 

terwards  lie  observes,  that  "  the  preacher  of  special 

frace  must,  consistently  with  his  own  principles,  lead 
is  hearers  to  look  for  some  nexo  conversion,  and  expect 
some  sensible  regeneration.  This  brings  him  to  use 
language  in  the  highest  degree  perplexing  to  an  ordina- 
ry hearer." 

The  members  of  the  churches  thus  addressed,  had 
certainly  been  baptized,  and  having,  by  that  rite,  been 
received  into  visible  communion,  there  was  a  pre- 
sumption, that  their  professions,  which  had  been  deem- 
ed credible,  were  true.  It  was,  therefore,  of  course, 
for  the  apostle  to  treat  them  as  saints.  That  their 
dedication  in  baptism  was  prima  facie  evidence  of  their 
being  in  a  state  of  reconcilement,  may  be  admitted  ;  but 
that  such  reconcilement  was  the  effect  of  baptism,  by 
no  means  follows. 

The  ancient  and  apostolic  condition  demanded  of 
those  who  sought  baptism,  was,  if  thou  believest  thou 
mayest ;  and  the  credible  profession  of  such  faith,  gave 
the  adult  the  right  to  be  baptized.  But  he  that  beliexelh 
that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  is  bom  of  God.  It  follows  that 
every  adult,  before  he  received  baptism,  was  deemed  to 
have  been  regenerated.  Now  that  regeneration  should 
have  been  the  previous  qualification  for  the  reception  of 
an  adult  into  the  visible  church  by  baptism ;  and  yet 
have  been  the  consequent  spiritual  blessing  to  be  con- 
veyed to  the  party  by  the  same  baptism,  is  an  obvious 
repugnancy. 

These  texts,  nevertheless,  and  many  others,  do  es- 
tablish that  a  change  of  some  kind  is  wrought  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  upon  those  who  are  really  united  to  Christ. 
Some  think,  that  the  powers  of  the  soul  are  strengthen- 
ed ;  others  that  k/iou-ledge  is  communicated  in  some 
such  manner  as  that  by  which  the  prophets  and  apos- 
tles received  the  suggestion  of  ideas  and  words ;  but 
if  regeneration  consisted  in  the  reception  of  new  pow- 
ers, or  new  light,  or  any  thing  which  the  unbeliever 
is  physically  unable  to  accomplish,  then  is  he  an  ob- 
ject of  pity,  not  the  subject  of  just  blame.  But  it  is 
2  g  2 


366  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

the  heart  which  is  alienated ;  a  change  of  disposition 
is  that  which  is  wanting ;  this  consequently  must  be 
the  regeneration  which  the  Spirit  effects,  wheieby  the 
man  becomes  a  member  of  Christ  and  an  inheritor  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven. 

That  baptism  is  a  "  sign  of  regeneration"  is  correct- 
ly observed  by  bishop  Chase  (Church  Register,  vol.  iii. 
p.  181)  to  be  not  only  the  language  of  the  27th  article, 
but  of  the  Westminster  Confession,  and  Cambridge 
and  Saybrook  platforms.  But  if,  as  he  asserts,  the 
first  "  dissenters"  went  with  "  the  church"  in  the  sense 
entertained  of  the  "  efficacy  of  this  holy  sacrament,"  it 
was  certainly  not  in  that  which  the  bishop  holds.  We 
cannot  suppose  that  the  learned  bishop  does  not  per- 
ceive, that  to  account  baptism  a  sig?i  and  even  a  seal 
of  regeneration,  is  vastly  different  from  the  position  that 
every  one  who  receives  such  sign  or  seal,  receives 
with  it  that  change  of  nature,  heart,  or  disposition,  which 
the  dissenters  mean  by  regeneration. 

However  "  uninformed''''  we  may  be,  we  never  mis- 
report  of  his  church,  that  they  hold  the  final  conserva- 
tion of  the  truly  regenerated,  and  however  "  far,  very 
far"  it  be  from  the  worthy  bishop  to  hold  that  doctrine, 
as  he  confesses,  we  are  very  sure,  that  he  will  hold  it, 
if  ever  he  understands  the  Scriptures  correctly.  If 
we  were  to  impute  to  "  the  church"  any  of  several 
systems  of  doctrines,  we  should  be  in  danger  of  "  mis- 
reporting,"  for  we  are  as  much  at  a  loss  to  know 
what  they  hold,  as  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  who  said  to 
the  bench  of  bishops  in  the  house  of  lords,  My  fathers, 
what  are  you  ?  Your  articles  are  Calvinistical,  your 
liturgy  Papistical,  and  your  sermons  Arminian.  My 
right  reverend  fathers,  what  are  you  1 

According  to  the  bishop  of  Winchester,  his  "  church 
considers  baptism  as  conveying  regeneration,"  conse- 
quently baptism  is  not  regeneration.  When  he  repre- 
sents us  as  perplexing  our  hearers  by  "  leading  them  to 
look  for  some  new  conversion,  and  to  expect  some  sen- 
sible regeneration,"  he  considers  the  regeneration, 
which  he  thinks  is  conveyed  by  baptism,  to  be  a  "  con- 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  367 

version,"  but  insensible;  and  by  affirming  that  they 
follow  ancient  example  and  practice,  we  are  enabled  to 
discern  a  striking  similarity ;  for  it  was  in  ancient 
times  believed,  that  the  Spirit  descended  upon  the 
consecrated  water,  and  by  it,  in  some  way,  regenera- 
ted the  soul  of  the  person  baptized. 

In  the  New  Testament,  regeneration  is  sometimes 
taken  in  a  figurative  sense  for  baptism,  born  of  the  zca- 
ter ;  at  other  times  for  the  reformation  of  the  life  or 
practice,  bor?i  of  the  word ;  it  is  also  used  for  the  resur- 
rection, approximating  its  classical  sense  ;  but  passing 
by  these,  the  two  bishops  appear  to  agree  in  using  the 
term  to  express  the  spiritual  change,  born  of  the  Spirit ; 
which  they  suppose  to  be  conveyed  into  the  soul  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  by  means  of  baptism  ;  and  because  it  su- 
persedes what  Dr.  Sumner  denominates  a  new  conver- 
sion, preached  by  dissenters,  there  is  no  room  to  ques- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  difference  we  make  between 
regeneration,  as  an  immediate  effect  of  the  Spirit,  and 
conversion  as  a  consequence,  that  their  ideas  nearly 
accord  with  our  own,  as  to  the  effects  of  the  spiritual 
influence;  for  we  are  as  far  as  Dr.  Chase  from  sup- 
posing any  to  be  wholly  renewed. 

The  question  about  which  we  differ,  seems,  there- 
fore, merely  to  be,  whether  baptism  is  the  mean  of  convey- 
ing the  spiritual  blessing. 

Baptisms  among  the  Jews  were  external  purifica- 
tions; such  were  \ho-ze  of  John,  and  of  the  disciples  of 
Christ,  before  his  death.  The  dispute  which  the 
Pharisees  had  about  purifying,  must  have  regarded 
the  propriety  of  their  using  this  ceremonial  rite. 

When  a  proselyte  was  received  to  the  Jewish  reli- 
gion, circumcision,  baptism,  and  a  sacrifice  constituted 
the  ceremony  of  introduction.  And  when  it  became 
expedient  that  Christians  should  receive  some  distin- 
guishing badge  of  membership,  baptism  in  the  name 
which  the  Saviour  appointed,  without  circumcision 
and  sacrifice,  was  the  rite  which  he  provided. 

Although  any  great  change  might  be  denominated 
a  regeneration,  yet  the  idea  of  a  new  birth  was  pro- 


368  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

bably  derived  from  the  Jews,  who  considered  a  prose- 
lyte as  born  again,  not  as  having  a  new  soul,  but  as 
adopted  among  the  children  of  Abraham.  The  Sa- 
viour used  the  same  phrase  to  signify  to  Nicodemus 
his  need  of  a  spiritual  change  ;  but  when  he  could  not 
make  the  transition  from  the  idea  of  naturalization  to 
that  of  a  spiritual  regeneration,  the  Saviour  distin- 
guished between  a  being  born  of  the  water  and  of  the 
Spirit. 

Paul  also  discriminated  between  circumcision  and 
that  of  which  it  was  the  sign ;  and  contended  that 
Gentiles  might  have  the  circumcision  of  the  heart, 
whilst  destitute  of  the  badge.  So  we  think  regenera- 
tion may  obtain  before,  at,  or  after  baptism ;  that  the 
sign  may  exist  with,  or  without  the  spiritual  change  ; 
and  that  it  may  become  also  a  seal  to  the  unrenewed, 
whensoever  they  are  afterwards  born  of  the  Spirit. 

To  limit  regeneration  to  the  washing  with  water, 
appears  to  us  without  authority;  and  to  make  it  the 
certain  effect  of  an  external  rite,  is  nearly  allied  to 
mysticism.  How  water  applied  to  the  body  should 
convey  spiritual  influences  to  the  soul,  and  change  the 
disposition,  is  beyond  the  reach  of  reason  and  science, 
and  as  it  receives  no  support  from  the  Scriptures,  we 
can  only  assign  it  the  character  of  a  charm.  Were 
disseiiters  thus  to  make  water-baptism,  which  is  a  physi- 
cal act,  to  be  the  infallible  medium  of  a  spiritual  ef- 
fect, they  would,  however  uninformed,  be  justly  charge- 
able with  exposing  the  cause  of  Christ  to  the  derision 
of  the  enemies  of  the  gospel. 

"  The  preacher  of  special  grace  must,  consistently 
with  his  own  principles,  lead  his  hearers  to  look  for 
some  new  conversion,"  &c.  True,  for  though  Dr. 
Sumner  would  confine  the  Spirit  to  influence  by  the 
medium  of  water,  yet  the  tenth  article  of  his  church 
points  to  another  regeneration,  which  he  improperly 
denominates  some  new  conversion.  Pelagius  held  no 
other  grace  than  Providence  and  pardon.  Semi-Pela- 
gians admit  spiritual  aid,  but  free-will  must  begin  the 
change.      That   article  opposes  them  both,  by  the 


LITURGICAL   CONSIDERATIONS.  369 

words, "  Grace  of  God  by  Christ  preventing  us,  that 
we  may  have  a  good  will,  and  working  with  us  when 
we  have  that  good  will."  This  is  precisely  the  doc- 
trine of  those  stigmatised  as  preachers  of  special  grace 
by  the  bishop;  and  also  the  identical  regeneration 
which  is  not  conveyed  by  water.  This  doctrine  may 
be  perplexing  to  hearers  in  the  diocese  of  Winchester, 
but  we  suspect  it  is  much  better  understood  in  the 
states  of  America  than  the  baptismal  regeneration. 

We  are  sorry  that  the  phrase  special  grace,  with 
which  Dr.  Sumner  too  justly  upbraids  us,  ever  came 
into  use;  yet  no  more  is  meant  by  it  than  by  the 
words  quoted  from  the  article.  Also,  if  the  Arminian 
perversion  denominated  common  grace,  an  imaginary, 
universal,  resistible,  inefficacious  influence,  had  not 
been  introduced,  the  term  special  could  not  have  ap- 
peared as  its  contrast;  thus  the  blame  justly  recoils 
upon  those  of  his  own  faith. 

But  when  the  term  special  grace,  being  equivalent  to 
grace  simply,  is  taken  to  signify  that  influence  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  by  which  the  soul  is  regenerated,  in  other 
words,  the  heart  or  disposition  is  changed  and  progres- 
sively sanctified,  no  inconvenience  can  spring.  The 
work  of  the  Spirit  in  regeneration,  in  which  man  is 
passive,  ought  to  be  distinguished  from  conversion,  in 
which  man  is  active,  in  turning/rom  sin  by  repentance  to 
God  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ.  Accordingly  the  Scrip- 
tures consider  sanctification  to  commence  in  regenera- 
tion ;  but  conversion,  or  turning  from  sin  in  the  exer- 
cise of  a  holy  disposition  and  a  corresponding  deport- 
ment to  God,  are  man's  duty,  though  the  fruits  or 
effects  by  which  the  new  birth  is  to  be  known. 

As  the  outward  circumcision  made  a  child  of  Jacob 
a  Jew  outwardly,  and  without  the  circumcision  of  the 
heart,  he  was  not  one  inwardly,  or  really  an  heir  of 
spiritual  blessings;  so  to  be  born cf  water  only,  renders 
a  man  merely  a  member  of  the  Christian  church,  and 
gives  him  a  title  to  its  privileges.  Consequently,  until 
he  is  born  of  the  Spirit,  that  is,  regenerated  or  baptized 
by  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  is  not  adopted,  justified,  sancti- 


370  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

fled,  nor  will  he  be  found  to  be  an  inheritor  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.  Paul  had  been  circumcised  on 
the  eighth  day,  but  not  in  heart,  till  on  the  way  to 
Damascus,  nor  baptized  till  afterwards. 

That  the  word  regeneration  may  be  taken  either 
for  a  being  born  of  the  water,  born  of  the  word,  or  born  of 
the  Spirit,  we  have  admitted ;  but  neither  can  it  justly 
be  inferred  from  the  words,  "  except  a  man  be  born 
of  the  water  and  of  the  Spirit,"  nor  from  the  connexion 
in  which  they  occur,  that  the  one  birth  is  either  the 
immediate  effect  of  the  other  or  its  necessary  concomi- 
tant. On  the  contrary  we  are  cautioned  by  an  apos- 
tle against  any  reliance  on  water-baptism  in  the  mat- 
ter of  salvation,  "  not  the  putting  away  of  the  filth  of 
the  flesh,  but  the  answer  of  a  good  conscience." 

There  has  been,  too  long,  a  disposition  among  our 
own  to  depreciate  the  talents  God  has  given  to  man, 
to  restrict  his  freedom  in  the  exercise  of  his  faculties, 
and  to  make  him  a  machine.  On  the  other  hand  the 
church,  though  sufficiently  orthodox  in  her  articles, 
has,  in  her  teaching,  gone  into  an  opposite  extreme, 
and  either  magnified  human  power  with  Pelagius,  re- 
ferring all  to  moral  suasion  ;  or  supplied  its  supposed 
defects  with  Arminius,  by  imagining  grace  to  be  given 
to  all,  and  exhorting  only  to  improve  it ;  or  by  sup- 
posing every  one  to  be  regenerated  by  baptism,  and 
brought  into  a  state  of  reconcilement,  taught  them 
to  expect  no  other  regeneration,  nor  to  look  for  a  new 
conversion.  Thus  in  the  Spirit's  work  of  regeneration, 
though  Jesus  Christ,  comparing  such  influence  with 
the  invisible  air,  has  said,  "  no  man  knows  whence  it 
cometh,"  the  bishops  of  Winchester  and  Ohio,  sup- 
ported by  their  liturgy,  say,  We  know  whence  it  com- 
eth, for  it  is  conveyed  by  the  water  in  baptism. 

It  has  been  argued,  that  if  baptism  be  "  attended  by 
no  real  grace,"  there  is  no  benefit  and  the  sacrament  is 
nullifed,  for  it  is  not  even  a  sign  of  regeneration, 
since  so  many  after  baptism  live  profane  and  unholy 
lives.  The  unscriptural  word  sacrament,  which  signi- 
fies mystery,  may  thereby  lose  its  original  intention, 


LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  371 

but  the  truth  is  that  this  melancholy  factj  of  subsequent 
impiety  is  proof,  that  the  water  does  not  regenerate 
the  soul;  yet  impenitency  cannot  hinder  that  baptism 
should  remain  a  sign  to  accuse  and  stare  the  baptized 
infidel,  at  every  step  of  his  career  in  wickedness,  and 
the  abused  benefits  redounding  from  church  member- 
ship may  become  an  additional  source  of  eternal 
misery. 

It  is  asked,  "are — the  doctrines  of  efficacious  grace 
and  its  necessary  consequence,  final  perseverance,  to 
be  supported  in  spite  of  the  Scriptures?"  We  reply, 
the  term  "perseverance"  which  we  are  ashamed  to  see 
in  the  Westminster  Confession,  bears  too  close  an  affin- 
ity to  Arminianism,  to  be  found  in  such  sense  in  the 
Scriptures ;  but  we  use  conservation  in  the  sense  attri- 
buted by  the  ancient  divines,  as  well  as  Dr.  Sumner, 
to  perseverance,  as  its  substitute ;  and  acknowledge 
with  him,  that  it  is  the  necessary  consequence  of  effica- 
cious grace ;  for  if  it  be  not  efficacious,  and  if  there 
be  any  good,  that  comes  neither  mediately  nor  imme- 
diately from  God,  but  springs  from  man,  then  is  man 
independent,  and  God  has  ceased  to  be  supreme.  Nev- 
ertheless the  divine  supremacy  and  man's  dependence 
in  the  most  unrestrained  exercises  of  his  will,  appear 
in  the  Scriptures  almost  in  every  page.  And  it  is  by 
this  grace,  which  thus  conflicts  with  the  liturgy,  that 
the  saints  are  kept  unto  salvation. 

In  our  simplicity,  we  had  thought  regeneration  a 
change  of  heart,  a  new  and  right  spirit  given  by  God 
immediately,  and  that  what  he  does,  he  does  forever; 
but  the  amiable  bishop  of  Ohio  affirms  that  his  church 
"finds  no  such  regeneration  in  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
she  holds  to  no  such  in  her  articles,  expositions,  or  rit- 
ual solemnities" — and  admits  no  other  than  "a  regen- 
eration by  water  and  the  Holy  Ghost."  That  is,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Sumner,  baptism  is  that  which  conveys 
regeneration  ;  but  the  Scriptural  expression  is  gram- 
matically "born  of  the  zvater  and"  born  "of  the  spirit." 

This  doctrine  naturally  leads  men  to  believe,  that 


372  LITURGICAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 

divine  power  has  no  effect  in  man,  but  only  towards 
him ;  provides  moral  means,  but  sends  no  immediate 
influence;  that  man  is  possessed  of  moral  ability  as 
well  as  physical  powers;  and  consequently  that  human 
agency,  and  self-sufficiency  supercedes  the  necessity 
of  immediate  spiritual  aid.  But  if  that  divine  influ- 
ence, which  the  prophets  foretold  of  the  Gospel  era, 
and  for  which  Jesus  Christ  taught  his  disciples  to  look 
and  to  pray,  has  no  actual  existence,  who  will  receive  the 
report?  Will  the  natural  man  receive  the  thi?igs  of  God, 
except  the  arm  of  the  Lord  be  made  bare?  Will  the  carnal 
mind  lay  aside  its  enmity?  Does  the  Ethiopian  change 
his  skin,  or  the  leopard  his  spots? 

But  such  questions  are  superseded  by  this  doctrine, 
which  teaches  that  every  one  who  has  been  baptised, 
is  regenerated.  "When,"  says  the  bishop  of  Ohio, 
"does  the  regenerated  state  of  man  commence?  If 
words  can  be  so  framed  as  to  give  a  plain  answer, 
they  are  those  of  the  apostle,  when  we  are  baptised  into 
Christ — "for  as  many  of  you  as  were  baptised  into 
Christ,  have  put  on  Christ."  The  worthy  bishop  will 
excuse  us  for  saying,  that  this  passage  will  not  prove, 
that  the  inward  spiritual  grace,  always  accompanies 
the  outward  visible  sign;  because  its  sense  is  fixed  by 
the  context,  Gal.  iii.  where  Christ  is  contrasted  with 
Moses,  and  the  Gospel  with  the  law  for  the  purpose  of 
opposing  the  liberty  of  Gospel  against  the  bondage  of  the 
law;  so  that  this  text  means  no  more,  than,  that  they 
who  came  out  of  the  water  of  baptism,  and  put  on 
other  clothes,  also  put  on  the  profession  of  Christ,  and 
were  no  longer  bound  to  the  ceremonial  observances 
of  Moses. 


FINIS. 


fnuBMa   "rfieol°9|cat  Semmary-Speei 


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